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EM 최윤앙
Core Review
Introduction
• Disorder of osmotic balance
– Up to 40% of ICU patients
– Presenting feature : plasma Na concentration
(hyperNa, hypoNa)
– Pathological problem : change in cell volume
(in CNS)
Osmotic Activity
• Osmotic activity
– Osmotic activity = Osmoles
– N. of solute particles / unit volume of solvent
• 용질의 개수에만 영향
– Total osmotic activity
• 용액에 녹은 용질 오스몰의 총합
• Units of Osmotic Activity
– Osmolarity(오스몰 농도) : mosm/L
• osmotic activity/volume of solution
– Osmolality(삼투질 농도) : mosm/kg H2O
• osmotic activity/volume of water
• plasma : 93% of water
Osmotic Activity
• Relative Osmolality(Tonicity)
Δosmotic activity
= effective osmotic activity
= osmotic pressure
Osmotic Activity
• Osmotic Activity & Transcellular shift of water
1. ECF의 osmotic pressure 변화는 transcellular
water shift를 유발
2. ECF가 hypertonic하면 cell 바깥으로 물이 이동
3. ECF가 hypotonic하면 cell 안으로 물이 이동
Osmotic Activity
• Plasma Osmolality
– Freezing point depression method
• 증류수는 0도에서 얼기 시작
• 1 osm/L 용액은 -1.86도에서 얼기 시작
– Plasma osmolality
Osmotic Activity
• Osmolal Gap
– plasma osmolality > calculated osmolality
– normal : 10 mosm/kg H2O
– exogenous toxin, solutes etc.
• Effective plasma osmolality (plasma tonicity)
Hypernatremia
• [Na] > 145 mEq/L
• Approach to HyperNa
1. Loss of Na & water (Na < water)
2. Free water loss
3. Gain of Na & water (Na > water)
• Assessment of ECF volume
Hypernatremia
• Hypertonicity
– Increase in the effective osmolality of ECF
– Hypernatremic encephalopathy
• Agitation, lethargy, coma, seizure
• Rapid rise in plasma Na
• Shrinkage of neuronal cell bodies, osmotic demyelination
• Mortality : up to 50%
Hypernatremia Clinical approach
Hypertonic Hyperglycemia
• Non-Ketotic Hyperglycemia
– 600 mg/dL = 40 mosm/kg H2O
– Stress such as infection, trauma
– Osmotic diuresis => hypovolemia, plasma
hyperosmol
Hypertonic Hyperglycemia
• Non-Ketotic Hyperglycemia
– Encephalopathy
• > 320 mosm/kg H2O
• Altered mentality, seizure, involuntary movement
• Higher mortality in NKH than DKA
– Management
• Aggressive volume infusion
• Na correction : [Na] 1.6~2.4 mEq/L / [glucose]100mg/dL
• Insulin therapy : after volume resuscitation
Hyponatremia
• [Na] < 135 mEq/L
• PseudohypoNa
– Marked increases in lipid or protein
• Hypotonic HypoNa
– Excess free water in ECF
– Loss of control mechanisms for ADH release
Hyponatremia
• Nonosmotic ADH release
– ADH : water reabsorption in distal tubule
– Suppressed at plasma [Na] < 135 mEq/L
– Released at low BP, physiological stress
• Encephalopathy
– Headache, nausea, vomiting, seizure, coma, brain
death
– Cerebral edema, increased ICP, herniation
Hyponatremia Clinical approach
Classifications of hyponatremia
Comparison of the United States and European guidelines
Hyperkalemia
Etiology
Transcellular shift Impaired renal excretion
High urine K+(>30) Low urine K+ (<30)
Rhabdomyolysis
Tumor lysis syndrome
Acidosis
Drugs
Transfusion
Burn
Renal failure
Adrenal insufficiency
Drugs
Pseudohyperkalemia
• Traumatic hemolysis during venipuncture(M/C)
• Fist clenching
• Severe leukocytosis(>50,000/mm3)
• Severe thrombolysis(1,000,000/mm3)
• Repeat blood sample!
Factors than stimulate K
secretion by the principal
cells
extracellular <K+>
aldosterone
tubular flow rate
Effect of hyperkalemia
Management of Severe Hyperkalemia
• K+ >6.5 mEq/L or ECG change (+)
• Goals
1) Antagonism of the cardiac effects of hyperkalemia
2) Transcellular shift of K+ into cells
3) Removal of excess K+ from the body
Antagonize cardiac effect
• Calcium
– Membrane stabilizer
– contraindicated if the hyperkalemia is a manifestation of
digitalis toxicity(controversy)
Transcellular shift
• Insulin – dextrose
– Hyperglycemia setting -> insulin only
– Temporary effect
• Beta 2 agonist
– at least 4 times the therapeutic dose
– Induce Tachycardia
• Bicarbonate?
– Short-term infusion : no effect
– Form complexes with calcium -> impair calcium effect
Potassium Removal
• Diuretics (신기능 적절하게 유지되는 경우)
• Cation exchange resin
– Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate)
• Hemodialysis
– Most effective
98% 2%
Intracellular Extracellular
Serum potassium
• The larger deficit
associated with
hypokalemia (x2)
Hypokalemia
Transcellular shift Depletion
Bronchodilator
Alkalosis
Insulin
Hypothermia
K+ < 3.5 mEq/L
GI loss
Renal loss
Renal loss
• Diuretics
– Most common
• NG tube
– Low K + in gastric juice
– H+ loss -> K+ loss
• Mg depletion
Extrarenal Potassium Loss
• Diarrhea
– Major cause of extra-renal loss
Manifestation of Hypokalemia
• Most asymptomatic
• Muscle weakness
• Abnormalities in the ECG
– prominent U waves
– Flat or inversion of T waves
– QT prolongation
• Hypokalemia + other condition
– Can be serious
Management of Hypokalemia
• Promotes transcellular shifts
• Decrease depletion
• Estimate Potassium Deficits
– even mild hypokalemia is associated with a considerable K+ deficit
Potassium Replacement
• Standard method
– K+ 20mEq + N/S 100mL over 1hr
– Usually 20mEq/hr
- 40 mEq/hour may be necessary
(e.g., serum K + <1.5 mEq/L or serious arrhythmias)
• As high as 100mEq/hr can be used
– C-line perferred
• Direct to SVC -> might be harm to heart
Response
• Usually Slowly increased
• Resistant or refractory hypokalemia
– Magnesium depletion
– More Diuretic-induce hypokalemia
Thank You for Your Attentions!
Reference
Marino's The ICU book
Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia: Compilation of the Guidelines.
J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017
Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia.
Eur J Endocrinol. 2014
The Effect of Calcium Chloride in Treating Hyperkalemia Due to Acute Digoxin Toxicity in a Porcine Model
2004, journal of toxicology
Treatment of hyperkalemia in a patient with unrecognized digitalis toxicity.
J Clin Toxicol 2003
Hyperkalemia and digoxin toxicity in patient with kidney failure.
Ann Emerg Med 1996
The utility of the transtubular potassium gradient in the evaluation of hyperkalemia
JASN March 2008

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Electrolytes

  • 2.
  • 3. Introduction • Disorder of osmotic balance – Up to 40% of ICU patients – Presenting feature : plasma Na concentration (hyperNa, hypoNa) – Pathological problem : change in cell volume (in CNS)
  • 4. Osmotic Activity • Osmotic activity – Osmotic activity = Osmoles – N. of solute particles / unit volume of solvent • 용질의 개수에만 영향 – Total osmotic activity • 용액에 녹은 용질 오스몰의 총합 • Units of Osmotic Activity – Osmolarity(오스몰 농도) : mosm/L • osmotic activity/volume of solution – Osmolality(삼투질 농도) : mosm/kg H2O • osmotic activity/volume of water • plasma : 93% of water
  • 5. Osmotic Activity • Relative Osmolality(Tonicity) Δosmotic activity = effective osmotic activity = osmotic pressure
  • 6. Osmotic Activity • Osmotic Activity & Transcellular shift of water 1. ECF의 osmotic pressure 변화는 transcellular water shift를 유발 2. ECF가 hypertonic하면 cell 바깥으로 물이 이동 3. ECF가 hypotonic하면 cell 안으로 물이 이동
  • 7. Osmotic Activity • Plasma Osmolality – Freezing point depression method • 증류수는 0도에서 얼기 시작 • 1 osm/L 용액은 -1.86도에서 얼기 시작 – Plasma osmolality
  • 8. Osmotic Activity • Osmolal Gap – plasma osmolality > calculated osmolality – normal : 10 mosm/kg H2O – exogenous toxin, solutes etc. • Effective plasma osmolality (plasma tonicity)
  • 9. Hypernatremia • [Na] > 145 mEq/L • Approach to HyperNa 1. Loss of Na & water (Na < water) 2. Free water loss 3. Gain of Na & water (Na > water) • Assessment of ECF volume
  • 10. Hypernatremia • Hypertonicity – Increase in the effective osmolality of ECF – Hypernatremic encephalopathy • Agitation, lethargy, coma, seizure • Rapid rise in plasma Na • Shrinkage of neuronal cell bodies, osmotic demyelination • Mortality : up to 50%
  • 12. Hypertonic Hyperglycemia • Non-Ketotic Hyperglycemia – 600 mg/dL = 40 mosm/kg H2O – Stress such as infection, trauma – Osmotic diuresis => hypovolemia, plasma hyperosmol
  • 13. Hypertonic Hyperglycemia • Non-Ketotic Hyperglycemia – Encephalopathy • > 320 mosm/kg H2O • Altered mentality, seizure, involuntary movement • Higher mortality in NKH than DKA – Management • Aggressive volume infusion • Na correction : [Na] 1.6~2.4 mEq/L / [glucose]100mg/dL • Insulin therapy : after volume resuscitation
  • 14.
  • 15. Hyponatremia • [Na] < 135 mEq/L • PseudohypoNa – Marked increases in lipid or protein • Hypotonic HypoNa – Excess free water in ECF – Loss of control mechanisms for ADH release
  • 16. Hyponatremia • Nonosmotic ADH release – ADH : water reabsorption in distal tubule – Suppressed at plasma [Na] < 135 mEq/L – Released at low BP, physiological stress • Encephalopathy – Headache, nausea, vomiting, seizure, coma, brain death – Cerebral edema, increased ICP, herniation
  • 19. Comparison of the United States and European guidelines
  • 20.
  • 21.
  • 23. Etiology Transcellular shift Impaired renal excretion High urine K+(>30) Low urine K+ (<30) Rhabdomyolysis Tumor lysis syndrome Acidosis Drugs Transfusion Burn Renal failure Adrenal insufficiency Drugs
  • 24. Pseudohyperkalemia • Traumatic hemolysis during venipuncture(M/C) • Fist clenching • Severe leukocytosis(>50,000/mm3) • Severe thrombolysis(1,000,000/mm3) • Repeat blood sample!
  • 25. Factors than stimulate K secretion by the principal cells extracellular <K+> aldosterone tubular flow rate
  • 27.
  • 28. Management of Severe Hyperkalemia • K+ >6.5 mEq/L or ECG change (+) • Goals 1) Antagonism of the cardiac effects of hyperkalemia 2) Transcellular shift of K+ into cells 3) Removal of excess K+ from the body
  • 29. Antagonize cardiac effect • Calcium – Membrane stabilizer – contraindicated if the hyperkalemia is a manifestation of digitalis toxicity(controversy)
  • 30. Transcellular shift • Insulin – dextrose – Hyperglycemia setting -> insulin only – Temporary effect • Beta 2 agonist – at least 4 times the therapeutic dose – Induce Tachycardia • Bicarbonate? – Short-term infusion : no effect – Form complexes with calcium -> impair calcium effect
  • 31. Potassium Removal • Diuretics (신기능 적절하게 유지되는 경우) • Cation exchange resin – Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) • Hemodialysis – Most effective
  • 33. Serum potassium • The larger deficit associated with hypokalemia (x2)
  • 34.
  • 36.
  • 37. Renal loss • Diuretics – Most common • NG tube – Low K + in gastric juice – H+ loss -> K+ loss • Mg depletion
  • 38. Extrarenal Potassium Loss • Diarrhea – Major cause of extra-renal loss
  • 39. Manifestation of Hypokalemia • Most asymptomatic • Muscle weakness • Abnormalities in the ECG – prominent U waves – Flat or inversion of T waves – QT prolongation • Hypokalemia + other condition – Can be serious
  • 40. Management of Hypokalemia • Promotes transcellular shifts • Decrease depletion • Estimate Potassium Deficits – even mild hypokalemia is associated with a considerable K+ deficit
  • 41. Potassium Replacement • Standard method – K+ 20mEq + N/S 100mL over 1hr – Usually 20mEq/hr - 40 mEq/hour may be necessary (e.g., serum K + <1.5 mEq/L or serious arrhythmias) • As high as 100mEq/hr can be used – C-line perferred • Direct to SVC -> might be harm to heart
  • 42. Response • Usually Slowly increased • Resistant or refractory hypokalemia – Magnesium depletion – More Diuretic-induce hypokalemia
  • 43. Thank You for Your Attentions!
  • 44. Reference Marino's The ICU book Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia: Compilation of the Guidelines. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017 Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014 The Effect of Calcium Chloride in Treating Hyperkalemia Due to Acute Digoxin Toxicity in a Porcine Model 2004, journal of toxicology Treatment of hyperkalemia in a patient with unrecognized digitalis toxicity. J Clin Toxicol 2003 Hyperkalemia and digoxin toxicity in patient with kidney failure. Ann Emerg Med 1996 The utility of the transtubular potassium gradient in the evaluation of hyperkalemia JASN March 2008

Editor's Notes

  1. Osmolarity = 오스몰 농도 Osmolality = 삼투질 농도/몰랄삼투압 (체액에서 물의 부피는 용질의 부피보다 훨씬 크기 때문에 체액에 있어 오스몰 농도와 몰랄삼투압에는 거의 차이가 없다. 따라서 혼용되어 사용된다.)
  2. Lipid soluble substance like urea can cross cell membrane, does not contribute to osmotic pressure Gradient b/w ECF & ICF
  3. 다음은 hyperkalemia 인데요, hypokalemia 가 상대적으로 mild 하다면 hyperkalemia 는 fatal 할 수 있습니다.
  4. Etiology 는 transcellular shift 및 kidney 에서의 potassium excretion 감소로 인해 일어날 수 있습니다. Spot K+ 확인으로 원인을 아는데 유용할 수 있으며, urine K+ 가 30mEq/L 이상인 경우 transcellular shift 를 의심할수 있겠습니다. Transcellular shift 인 경우는 acidosis, Tumor lysis syndrome 일 때도 P, U, K 가 올라갈 수 있다고 하며, 아울러 hypercalcemia 도 동반합니다. 때때로 AKI 를 동반하여 더 심각할 수 있습니다. Drug 은 아래 표에 원인들이 있는데요 digitalis 는 Na-K pump 의 작용을 방해하여 발생하나 acute digitalis toxicity 일 때만 발생합니다. Succinicholine 사용시에도 발생하며 기전은 같으나 이도 심하지 않고 기간도 5-10분 정도로 일시적입니다. 위험한 경우는 denervation injury(spinal cord injury 같은 경우) 등에서 denervation 을 더 악화시키기 때문에 발생할수 있습니다. Blood transfusion 의 경우에는 massive transfusion 에서만 유발되는 경우가 많고, 이는 우선 저장혈의 낮은 온도(4’C) 가 Na-K pump 를 shut off 시키기 때문이며, 이에 따라 K+ 가 cell 에서 leak 됩니다. RBC 한팩에는 2-3mEq 의 K+ 이 있으며 여러 팩 수혈하는 경우에는 무시할수 없는 양이 됩니다. 보통 이렇게 증가한 K+ 는 콩팥에서 처리하게 되나 대량 수혈시에는 보통 콩팥 기능이 좋지 않은 경우가 많아 K+ 상승이 잘 일어나게 됩니다. Impaired renal function 의 경우는 콩팥의 기능이 10mL/min 까지 떨어지지 않는 한 충분히 K+ 를 urine 으로 배출할 수 있습니다. Adrenal insufficiency 의 경우 K+ 배출이 장애가 있을수 있으나 chronic 한 경우에만 잘 생깁니다. Renal func 을 떨어뜨리는 약물들은 table에 역시 나오는데 ACEi, ARB, potassium sparing diuretics(spironolactone), NSAID 등이 있습니다. 이는 모두 Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system 의 inhibition 을 유발하기 때문에 발생할 수 있으며, renal insufficiency 나 K+ 보충에 의하여 악화될수 있습니다.
  5. PseudohyperK는 몇가지 원인이 있는데 채혈시 hemolysis 가 생긴 경우, 주먹을 세게 쥐면서 발생하는 경우, 심한 leukocytosis 나 thrombolysis 등 cell 이 손상을 받기 쉬워서 cell 내부의 K+ 가 흘러나오는 경우 가 많은 것으로 보입니다. 이경우는 lab 을 다시 해보면 구분이 가능합니다.
  6. The urine to plasma osmolality ratio adjusts for the degree of medullary water reabsorption, which increases the urine K+ concentration as more water is absorbed. Thus, the TTKG is intended to estimate the tubular fluid K+ concentration at a point at which the fluid was last isotonic to plasma, namely, the cortical collecting duct. Other important determinants of K+ secretion are K+ permeability of the luminal membrane through K+ channels, sodium delivery and urine flow rate into the distal nephron, and the degree of electronegativity of the urinary lumen generated by Na+ reabsorption through luminal Na+ channels and the anion composition of the urine If, however, sodium and urea are reabsorbed from the medulla, resulting in decreased urine osmolality, then the TTKG would overestimate the gradient for cortical collecting duct K+ secretion.4 Also, in situations with a dilute urine or high urine flow rate, the TTKG underestimates K+ secretory capacity in the hyperkalemic patient. Calculation of the TTKG requires that urine Na+ be >25 mEq/L so that sodium delivery to principal cells is not rate limiting for K+ secretion.
  7. The number of voltage-gated sodium channels activated during depolarization. Resting potential less negative -> the number of available sodium channel decreases Resulting in a slower influx of sodium and subsequently slower impulse condution.
  8. 보통 hyperkalemia 는 심근의 impulse transmission 을 slowering 시키는 작용이 있습니다. 이로 인해 heart block 이나 bradycardia, arrest 등이 발생할수 있습니다. ECG 는 해당 figure 에서 확인할 수 있으며, 저기 써져있는 수치는 개략적인 것이지 ECG 를 보고 K+ 수치를 판단할 수 있을 정도로 정확하지는 않습니다. 보통 해당 rhythm 의 변화는 V2 3 에서 잘 보이며, 첫 변화는 tall T 라고 하는 양측이 대칭인 tent 모양의 T wave 입니다. 이후 점점 P wave 는 감소하여 junctional rhythm 처럼 보이게 되고 PR 간격은 길어집니다. 이후 QRS 가 넓어지고 마지막은 vfib, asystole 이 생기게 됩니다. 보통 potassium 7mEq/L 에서 이러한 변화가 시작된다고 되어 있습니다.
  9. Severe hyperkalemia 의 기준은 6.5이상과 ECG change 이고 치료 목표는 세가지로 심근 보호와 K+ 의 cell 안으로의 이동, 그리고 K+ excretion 입니다.
  10. Calcium 은 electrical charge difference 의 차이를 증가시켜서 membrane potential 을 stabilize 시킵니다. 보통 calcium gluconate 를 사용하는데. K+ 의 양은 감소시키지 못하고 다른 약제를 병행해서 사용해야 합니다. Hypercalcemia 가 Digitalis 중독을 악화시킬 수 있으므로 주의하여야 합니다. 효과는 1-3분사이에 나타나고, 30-60분까지 지속됩니다.
  11. 다음은 insulin dextrose 로 insulin 은 K+ 를 Na-K pump 를 통해 skeletal m. cell 로 넣어주는 기능을 합니다. 보통 용법대로 사용시 최소 0.6mEq/L 의 감소를 기대할 수 있으며, dextrose 는 hypoglycemia 때문에 사용합니다. 따라서 hyperglycemia 일때는 insulin 만 사용하여도 무방하고, hypokalemia 가 동반되어 있다면 악화 가능성을 고려해야 합니다. 최고 효과는 30-60분 정도에서 나타나면 4-6시간 지속됨. Beta2 agonist 는 보통 4번 치료용량 사용시 0.5-1mEq/L 정도의 감소 효과를 기대할 수 있으나 tachycardia 등을 동반하므로 severe hyperkalemia 등에서는 사용하지 않는 것이 좋습니다. Bicarbonate는 대사성 산증동반시 사용하는데, 4-6시간 후에 효과가 나타남으로 급성기 치료에는 효과가 없고, calcium 과 결합하여버려 cardiac cell memb. 의 stabilization 에 악영향을 미칩니다. 혈량 과부화에도 역시 주의가 필요합니다.
  12. Cation exchange resin은 보통 우리가 말하는 kalimate 를 의미하는 것으로 bowel 을 통한 excretion 을 의미합니다. Oral 혹은 enema 등으로 시행할 수 있으며, 최소 6시간 동안 효과가 있습니다. HD 는 가장 효과적으로 1시간동안 1mEq 를 감소시킬수 있으며 이후 3시간동안 2mEq 를 감소시킬수 있습니다.
  13. 우리 몸의 70kg 성인의 총 K 양이 3500mEq 정도라면 그 중 98%는 intracellular이고 2%만이 extracellular 입니다. Plasma는 ESF의 20% 정도이므로 15mEq 정도 밖에 안됩니다. 우리가 검사로 측정하는 K pool은 결국 굉장히 적은 부분입니다.
  14. Serum potassium과 total body potassium 은 다음과 같은 curve 관계를 가지고 있습니다. K deficit인 경우 200-400mEq 만큼의 potassium 감소로 plasma K+ 는 1 감소합니다. 그런데 K excess의 경우 전체 potassium 이 100-200mEq만 증가해도 1mEq 만큼 증가합니다. 이러한 관계가 나타나는 이유는 intracellular K+이 충분히 많아서 부족한 경우 serum의 보충이 가능해서 그렇다 생각하시면 됩니다.
  15. 다음은 potassium 의 배출에 대한 내용이고 대부분은 urine(40-120 mEq/day) 으로 배출되고 나머지는 땀(0-10)이나 대변(5-10)으로 나가게 됩니다. Renal excretion 은 passive 하게 proximal tube 에서 재흡수되고 distal tube 와 collecting duct 에서 분비됩니다. Urine potassium 은 K+ 의 분비를 반영하며, plasma K+ 와 aldosterone 에 의해 조절됩니다. 신기능이 정상인 한, K+ 는 신장에서 저절로 조절을 할 수 있습니다.
  16. 그러면 먼저 hypokalemia 부터 보겠습니다. K+ 가 cell 로 들어가거나 total body K+ 가 감소하는 경우에 발생합니다. Transcellular shift 는 beta2 agonist 에 의해서도 발생할수 있으며 이는 mild(0.5mEq/L) 한 효과를 보이며 alkalosis, hypothermia, insulin 의 사용의 경우에도 발생할 수 있습니다. 이 방법들이 우리가 hyperK 환자가 왔을때 serum K을 낮추기 위해 사용하는 방법이기도 하죠. Potassium depletion 은 주로 kidney 와 GI tract 으로 배출됩니다.
  17. Hypokalemia 원인을 확인하는데 여러가지 flow chart가 있는데 결국에는 hypo 또는 hyperK 환자가 있으면 확인을 해야 되는 것은 serum E’, osm, urine E’, osm, Mg 등을 확인해야 합니다. 결국에는 Urine K으로 소변으로 K이 많이 배출되는 것인지 아닌지를 처음에 보고, 그 다음에 이 표를 쭉 따라고 보면 이해는 되실 겁니다. 더 자세한 설명…
  18. Renal loss 의 가장 흔한 원인은 diuretics 이며, NG tube drainage 에 의해서도 발생할 수 있습니다. 이는 K+ 의 직접 배출은 적으나 H+ 이 K+ 의 loss 를 유도하기 때문에 감소할 수 있습니다. 이는 앞에서 본 urine chloride로 구분할 수 있습니다. Magnesium depletion 은 K+ 의 재흡수에 장애가 오기 만들기 때문에 특히 ICU 환자에서는 주의하도록 합니다.
  19. Extrarenal loss 는 보통 diarrhea 가 일반적입니다. 평소의 stool 이라면 하루 손실량이 5-10mEq 에 불과하나 inflammatory 혹은 secretory 의 경우에는 15-40mEq/L 에 육박합니다.
  20. 증상은 보통 없으나 심한 경우에는 muscle weakness 를 동반할 수 있으며, ECG 의 변화가 나타날 수 있습니다. Hypokalemic periodic paralysis가 대표적이죠. 보통 prominent U wave 를 보이며 T wave 의 flatting 혹은 inversion 을 동반하고 QT interval 이 길어질 수 있습니다. 하지만 꼭 특징적으로 hypokalemia 에만 나타나는 건 아니고 U wave 의 경우에는 digitalis 나 LVH 의 경우 확인하여야 하고 QT prolongation 은 여러 정신과 약들은 포함한 약이나 hypocalcemia 및 hypomagnesemia 등을 감별하여야 할 것입니다. 때때로 arrhythmia 를 동반하는 경우가 있으나 단독으로는 fatal 하지 않은 것으로 되어 있습니다.
  21. Hypokalemia 의 management 는 간단합니다. ECF 로의 transcellular shift 를 유발하거나 depletion 을 감소시키고 K을 보충해주면 됩니다. 감소량은 다음 표와 같이 계산을 할 수 있습니다.
  22. Fluid tx. 는 보통 potassium chloride 를 사용하는데요, 이게 심하게 4000mosm/kg H2O 로 심하게 hyperosmotic 하기 때문에 희석해서 써야 됩니다. Potassium phosphate 도 쓰는데 이는 DKA 때 자주 쓰입니다. Rate 는 20mEq 를 isotonic saline 에 섞어서 1시간동안 줄 수 있습니다. 보통 20mEq/hr 로 투여하나 경우에 따라 100mEq/hf 로도 사용할수는 있습니다. central line 이 선호되는데요 왜냐면… 아파서. 하지만 속도가 20mEq/hr 를 초과하는 경우에는 SVC 로 주면 안되는데 일시적으로 심장 주변이 hyperkalemia 가 되어 severe arrhythmia 나 asystole 등이 발생할수 있기 때문입니다.
  23. 처음에는 K+ 의 상승이 천천히 일어나는데 이는 아까 봤던 커브의 아래쪽이라 그렇습니다. 가끔 전혀 반응이 없는 경우가 있는데 이경우는 Mg depletion 을 의심할수 있습니다. 이경우 urinary K+ loss 를 promotion 하며 Mg 감소가 있는 경우 diuretics 에 의한 hypokalemia 가 심해질수 있습니다. A decrease in intracellular magnesium, caused by magnesium deficiency, releases the magnesium-mediated inhibition of ROMK channels and increases potassium secretion. Na-K-ATPase caused by magnesium deficiency contributes to K wasting Magnesium deficiency impairs Na-K-ATPase, which would decrease cellular uptake of K A decrease in cellular uptake of K, if it occurs along with increased urinary or gastrointestinal excretion would lead to K wasting and hypokalemia The sodium/potassium pump at the cellular membrane maintains a high cellular potassium concentration by active transport against a considerable gradient. The pump is activated by magnesium. Under magnesium deficiency the pump function is impaired, because the membrane ATpase, the enzyme responsible, now shows reduced activity, The energy substrate for the transport activity of the sodium/potassium pump is represented by ATP in form of its magnesium complex. This ATP-Mg++ complex is split by the ATPase delivering the transport energy and therefore it is said that the ATPase is directing the sodium/potassium pump.