(1) Digital Measurement of Electrical Quantities-Concept of digital measurement, Block diagram, Study of digital voltmeter, Frequency meter, Spectrum analyzer, Electronic multimeter.
(2) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope-Basic CRO circuit (block diagram), Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
& its components,Applications of CRO in measurement, Lissajous Pattern, Dual trace & dual beam oscilloscopes.
Do Diodes and electronic stuff freaks you out?And what about those clippers and clampers?The details are as follows.
You can learn every concept related to it here.Enjoy clipping :)
The three terminals of the FET are known as Gate, Drain, and Source.
It is a voltage controlled device, where the input voltage controls by the output current.
In FET current used to flow between the drain and the source terminal. And this current can be controlled by applying the voltage between the gate and the source terminal.
So this applied voltage generate the electric field within the device and by controlling these electric field we can control the flow of current through the device.
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or o-scope, CRO, or DSO, is a type of electronic test instrument that graphically displays varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time.
Introduction to operational Amplifier. For A2 level physics (CIE). Discusses characteristics of op amp, inverting and non inverting amplifier, and voltage follower, and transfer characetristics, virtual earth , etc
Do Diodes and electronic stuff freaks you out?And what about those clippers and clampers?The details are as follows.
You can learn every concept related to it here.Enjoy clipping :)
The three terminals of the FET are known as Gate, Drain, and Source.
It is a voltage controlled device, where the input voltage controls by the output current.
In FET current used to flow between the drain and the source terminal. And this current can be controlled by applying the voltage between the gate and the source terminal.
So this applied voltage generate the electric field within the device and by controlling these electric field we can control the flow of current through the device.
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or o-scope, CRO, or DSO, is a type of electronic test instrument that graphically displays varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time.
Introduction to operational Amplifier. For A2 level physics (CIE). Discusses characteristics of op amp, inverting and non inverting amplifier, and voltage follower, and transfer characetristics, virtual earth , etc
The presentation describes construction and working of CRT/ CRO's. Measurement of Voltage, frequency and phase using CRO is described. Presentation describes X-Y display, Lissajou figures and Z axis modulation of CRO's. Delay time based CRO', Sampling CRO, DSO and DSO applications are explained.
When a plane polarized light passses through a polarizer then analyzer analyse this light this intensity of light transmitted called malus law.
It is also known as half shade polarimeter hello guys mun Kalia apana mananku swagat karuchhi ajira ei Manorama mancha uparaku . Jaha ki aji ranapratap saha nka birthday ate. Ta apana mananku anurodha ki apana mane sabu asi white jogadanaa dele bhala huanta nahele nai kichhi asubidha nahin ma
UNIT-V:Non Conventional Energy Sources:
Power Crisis, future energy demand, role of Private sectors in energy management,
concepts & principals of MHD generation, Solar power plant,
Wind Energy,Geothermal Energy,Tidal energy,Ocean Thermal Energy.
UNIT-IV:Economic Operation of Power Systems:
Characteristics of steam and hydro-plants,Constraints in operation, Economic load scheduling of thermal plants Neglecting and considering transmission Losses, Penalty factor, loss coefficients, Incremental transmission loss. Hydrothermal Scheduling.
UNIT-III:Sub-stations Layout:
Types of substations, bus-bar arrangements, typical layout of substation.Power Plant Economics and Tariffs:Load curve, load duration curve, different factors related to plants and consumers, Cost of electrical energy, depreciation, generation cost, effect of Load factor on unit cost. Fixed and operating cost of different plants, role of load diversity in power system economy. Objectives and forms of Tariff; Causes and effects of low power factor, advantages of power factor improvement, different methods for power factor improvements.
UNIT-II: Nuclear Power Plant:
Location, site selection, general layout and operation of plant. Brief description of different types of reactors Moderator material, fissile materials, control of nuclear reactors, disposal of nuclear waste material, shielding.Gas Turbine Plant: Operational principle of gas turbine plant & its efficiency, fuels, open and closed-cycle plants, regeneration, inter-cooling and reheating, role and applications.
Diesel Plants:
Diesel plant layout, components & their functions, its performance, role and applications.
UNIT-I:Introduction:
Electric energy demand and growth in India, electric energy sources.
Thermal Power Plant: Site selection, general layout and operation of plant, detailed description and use of different parts.
Hydro Electric Plants: Classifications, location and site selection, detailed description of various components, general layout and operation of Plants, brief description of impulse, reaction, Kaplan and Francis turbines, advantages & disadvantages, hydro-potential in India.
Electrical measurement & measuring instruments [emmi (nee-302) -unit-4]Md Irshad Ahmad
AC Potentiometers-Polar type & Co-ordinate type AC potentiometers, application of AC
Potentiometers inelectrical measurement. (4)
(2)Magnetic Measurement-Ballistic galvanometer, Flux meter ,Determination of hysteresis
loop, measurement of iron losses.
Electrical measurement & measuring instruments [emmi (nee-302) -unit-3]Md Irshad Ahmad
Measurement of Parameters-Different methods of measuring low, medium and high resistances, measurement of inductance & capacitance with the help of AC Bridges, Q meter
Electrical measurement & measuring instruments [emmi (nee-302) -unit-2]Md Irshad Ahmad
Instrument Transformers: CT and PT; their errors, Applications of CT and PT in the extension of instrument range, Introduction to measurement of speed, frequency and power factor.(
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [Emmi- (NEE-302) -unit-1]Md Irshad Ahmad
(1) Philosophy of Measurement-Methods of measurement, Measurement system
, Classification of instrument systems, Characteristics of instruments & measurement
systems, Errors in measurement & its analysis, Standards.
(2)Analog Measurement of Electrical Quantities-Electrodynamic, Thermocouple,
Electrostatic & Rectifier type ammeters & voltmeters, Electrodynamic wattmeter, Three
Phase wattmeter, Power in three phase systems, Errors & remedies in wattmeter and energy
meter.
Unit-V
Measurement and Solving of Power Quality Problems: Power quality measurement devices- Harmonic Analyzer , Transient Disturbance Analyzer, wiring and grounding tester, Flicker Meter, Oscilloscope, multi-meter etc. Introduction to Custom Power Devices-Network Reconfiguration devices; Load compensation and voltage regulation using DSTATCOM; protecting sensitive loads using DVR; Unified power Quality Conditioner. (UPQC)
Unit-IV
Harmonics: Causes of harmonics; current and voltage harmonics: measurement of harmonics; effects of harmonics on – Transformers, AC Motors, Capacitor Banks, Cables, and Protection
Devices, Energy Metering, Communication Lines etc. harmonic mitigation techniques
Unit-III
Electrical Transients: Sources of Transient Over voltages- Atmospheric and switching transients- motor starting transients, pf correction capacitor switching transients, ups switching transients, neutral voltage swing etc; devices for over voltage protection
Unit-II
Voltage Sag: Sources of voltage sag: motor starting, arc furnace, fault clearing etc; estimating voltage sag performance and principle of its protection; solutions at end user level- Isolation Transformer, Voltage Regulator, Static UPS, Rotary UPS, Active Series Compensator
Introduction to Power Quality: Terms and definitions of transients,
Long Duration Voltage Variations: under Voltage, Under Voltage and Sustained Interruptions
; Short Duration Voltage Variations: interruption, Sag, Swell; Voltage Imbalance; Notching D C offset,; waveform distortion; voltage fluctuation; power frequency variations
Protection of Transformer
Generator and motor.
Circuit Breaker: Operating modes
Selection of circuit breakers
Constructional features and operation of Bulk Oil,
Minimum Oil,
Air Blast,
SF6,
Vacuum and d. c. circuit breakers.
Circuit Breaking:
Properties of arc
Arc extinction theories
Re-striking voltage transient
Current chopping
Resistance switching
Capacitive current interruption
Short line interruption
Circuit breaker ratings.
Testing Of Circuit Breaker: Classification
Testing station and equipment's
Testing procedure
Direct and indirect testing
Amplitude and phase comparators
Over current relays
Directional relays
Distance relays
Differential relay.
Static Relays: Comparison with electromagnetic relay
Classification and their description
Over current relays
Directional relay
Distance relays
Differential relay
Unit I: Introduction to Protection System:
Introduction to protection system and its elements, functions of protective relaying, protective zones, primary and backup protection, desirable qualities of protective relaying, basic terminology.
Relays:
Electromagnetic, attracted and induction type relays, thermal relay, gas actuated relay, design considerations of electromagnetic relay.
Unit-II: Relay Application and Characteristics:
Amplitude and phase comparators, over current relays, directional relays, distance relays, differential relay.
Static Relays: Comparison with electromagnetic relay, classification and their description, over current relays, directional relay, distance relays, differential relay.
Unit-III Protection of Transmission Line:
Over current protection, distance protection, pilot wire protection, carrier current protection, protection of bus, auto re-closing,
Unit-IV: Circuit Breaking:
Properties of arc, arc extinction theories, re-striking voltage transient, current chopping, resistance switching, capacitive current interruption, short line interruption, circuit breaker ratings.
Testing Of Circuit Breaker: Classification, testing station and equipments, testing procedure, direct and indirect testing.
Unit-V Apparatus Protection:
Protection of Transformer, generator and motor.
Circuit Breaker: Operating modes, selection of circuit breakers, constructional features and operation of Bulk Oil, Minimum Oil, Air Blast, SF6, Vacuum and d. c. circuit breakers.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
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1. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (NEE-302)
Md Irshad Ahmad
irshad.ahmad@jit.edu.in
Electrical Engineering Department
LECTURE
on
UNIT –V
Digital Measurement of Electrical Quantities
&
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
2. UNIT V
Digital Measurement of Electrical Quantities-
Concept of digital measurement, Block diagram
Study of digital voltmeter,
Frequency meter,
Spectrum analyzer,
Electronic multimeter.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope-
Basic CRO circuit (block diagram), Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) & its components,Applications of CRO
in measurement,
Lissajous Pattern, Dual trace & dual beam
oscilloscopes.
CONTENTS
4. INTRODUCTION TO CRO
Versatile electronic instrument giving visual
display of signals
Used for measurement of frequency ,
amplitude, phase etc.
Also used in determining the nature and
characteristics of various components.
Has a high bandwidth range thus making it a
sensitive and accurate device.
Easier to use as the internal routine act as a
guide to the user.
15. The most common one is of - TWO INPUTS
.
Although FOUR and EIGHT inputs are
available for special applications
16. There are primary two types of multi-input
oscilloscope :-
Single Beam Oscilloscope
Dual Beam Oscilloscope
Both of them can be converted into a
further
Number of traces.
18. In this oscilloscope two separate
vertical input channels are used.
There are two common operating
modes for the Electronic Switch, called
Alternate and Chop which can be selected
from the instrument’s front panel.
Dual Trace Oscilloscopes
27. Lissajous Pattern
When two sinusoidal voltage signals
of equal frequency having some phase
difference are applied to the
deflection plates of CRO, a straight
line or an ellipse appears on the
screen these figures are called
Lissajous figures or Lissajous curves or
pattern.
34. Advantage Of DSO
Stores waveform for infinite time
Digitize waveform can be processed in any way
Writing speed is more
Processing of signal is easy
36. CRT: Cathode Ray Tube
CRT: Cathode Ray Tube
CRO: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope CRT+ control & input circuitry
CRT Block diagram:
Electrode system in evacuated glass tube which ends at screen
• Triode section
• Focussing Lens
• Deflection grids
• Post deflection acceleration
• Screen
37. CRT Construction
.
.
-2 KV
6.3 V -2.050 KV -2 KV +12 KV
Cathode
Filament
Grid
Glass tube
A1 A2 A3
Vertical
deflection
plate
Horizontal
deflection
plate
Isolation
shield
ResistivehelixElectron beam
Aquadag
Screen
Power Supply
Triode
section
Focussing Deflection Post deflection
acceleration
Electron Gun
38. CRT Construction: Triode section
• A electron beam is generated by a cathode heated by filament
• Consists of a cathode , grid and anode
• Grid is a Nickel cup with a hole in it
• Cathode is Nickel cylinder, with flat oxide coated electron emitting
surface towards the grid hole. Heating is provided by a filament
• Cathode is kept at -2 KV and grid is adjustable in the range –2KV to
-2.05 KV
• Grid cathode potential controls electrons flow rate towards screen,
thus Grid potential is brightness control.
39. CRT Construction: Focussing
-2 KV
A2 A3
Line 2
Equi-potential lines Line 1
A1
Convergent Force
on beam
Divergent Force
direction on beam
Electro static focussing using focussing lens:
Equi-potential lines setup convergent /divergent forces
• Purpose is to focus electron beam at a fine point of screen
• A1 and A3 are grounded while A2 held around -2KV, resulting in equi-
potential lines as shown in figure. Lines in A1 converges electron
beam, while line in A3 diverges electron beam.
• Convergent/ divergent forces are adjusted by potential of A2. i.e
point of focus is shifted. A2 is sometimes referred as focus ring.
40. CRT Construction: Deflection
• With potential across plates, beam deflects to +ve potential.
• Voltage to produce one cm at screen (V/cm) is referred as deflection factor. Deflection by
1 V (cm/V) is termed as deflection sensitivity
• If horizontal/ vertical plates are grounded, beam is not deflected.
• When ac is applied at deflection plates, horizontal/vertical lines are produced at the
screen. Waveform to be displayed is fed to vertical plates while horizontal plates are fed
with a ramp.
• Grounded isolation shield is lie between horizontal/ vertical plates
41. CRT Construction: Screen
• CRT Screen is formed by coating phosphor material to inside of the
screen. When electron beam strikes, electrons in the phosphor
material go to higher energy level and return to original statae while
emitting the visible light (Glow).
• The glow may persist for some time (ms to second) and may be of
colour Red, Blue , Green or White depending on the material.
• Phosphors are insulators. Secondary emission electrons are
collected by a graphite coating “aquadag” around the neck of tube.
• Post deflection acceleration is provided by helix of resistive material
deposited inside of tube between deflection plate and screen with
starting point at ground while ending point at aquadag (12 KV)
• Thus electrons leaving deflection plates finds continuous
acceleration before striking screen
42. CRO Block diagram
4
2
6.3 V
-2 KV
-2.050 KV -2 KV +12 KV
Screen
Power Supply
Vertical
Amplifier
Delay
Line
Input
signal
Trigger
Circuit
Time base
Circuit
Horizontal
Amplifier
Attenuator
Calibration
input
43. CRO : Waveform Display
+2 V
0
-2 V
0 1 2 3 4 ms
t
Input to vertical deflection plate
Input to horizontal deflection plate
+2 V
0
-2 V
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Display
• When ac is applied to vertical plates
and horizontal plates are grounded,
then spot on the screen produce a
vertical line by moving up and down
• If ramp (a period of saw tooth wave)
is applied on horizontal plate, spot
moves horizontally along with up and
down movement, thereby producing
a waveform
45. Oscilloscope: X-Y and Z display
• Simple figures occur for waveforms of same frequency waveform, while for
different frequencies quite complex figures are formed. For stationary figures
there must be exact ratio of frequencies
Vertical
input
Horizontal
input
Vertical input : sine wave
Horizontal input: No input
Vertical input : No input
Horizontal input: sine wave
Vertical input : Sine wave
Horizontal input: In-phase Sine
• When time base is disconnected, and input waveforms are applied on
horizontal and vertical amplifiers, resulting display are called lissajou
figures and depends on relationship of two waveforms.
46. Oscilloscope: Lissajou figures
Vertical
input
Horizontal
input
Vertical input : sine wave
Horizontal input: anti phase sine wave
Vertical input : No input
Horizontal input: sine wave
with 900 phaseshift
Vertical input : Sine wave
Horizontal input: Sine wave with
phase difference between 0-900
Vertical
Input(f1)
Horizontal
Input(f2)
f1:f2=2:1 f1:f2=3:2
47. Oscilloscope: Z-axis modulation
• CRO have a intensity modulation input termed as Z-axis modulation
• The input wave actually modulates the grid input of oscilloscope.
This dims or blank out the traces.
• For a lissajou figure ‘circle’ when z-axis modulation is applied, gaps
are formed. Ratio of modulating frequency (fm) to deflecting plate
signal frequency (fp) is equal to number gaps in the circle.
• When fm:fp is an exact quantity, gaps in circle will bestable
Vertical
input
Horizontal
input
fm:fp :: 3:1 fm:fp :: 8:1
48. Oscilloscope specifications and
performance
Sensitivity: defines the amplitude that can be displayed on screen
• Typically sensitivity ranges from 2 mV/div to 10 V/div.
• Using the probe measuring sensitivity can be increased.
Voltage Measurement Accuracy:
• Accuracy of V/div sensitivity is typically 3%.
• Reading accuracy is typically 5% per division.
• For peak to peak voltage in 5 div, reading accuracy is 5%/5= 1%.
Overall measurement accuracy becomes 1%+ 3%= 4%
Frequency Response:
• Highest and lowest frequency of waveform that may be displayed
with no more than 3 dB attenuation
• For CRO upper cutoff frequency (fH) having negligible
effect on displayed waveform, signal frequency should not exceed fH/10
4
8
49. Oscilloscope specifications and
performance
Time Base Accuracy:
•Accuracy of V/div sensitivity is typically 5%.
•Reading accuracy of time base is typically 5% per division.
•For peak to peak voltage in 5 div, reading accuracy is
5%/5= 1%. Overall measurement accuracy becomes
1%+ 5%= 6%
Rise Time Measurement:
•is rise time imposed on oscilloscope on an input pulse
wave.
• tro=0.35/fH
50. Delay time based
Oscilloscopes
• In normal CRO, the input signal is used to trigger the time base,
while vertical plates are fed with some delay. This facilitates study of
leading/ lagging edge of a pulse type waveform. However this delay
time may not be high enough to cover full signal.
• In Delay time based CRO, a variable delay is introduced in time base.
• Un-blanking pulse of delayed time base (DTB) is added with that of
main time base (MTB). This increases the intensity of CRT in the
duration of DTB ramp, and highlights the portion of waveform.
• The part of waveform highlighted, can be displayed on CRT by
switching the DTB ramp to horizontal plate amplifier.
• Using alternate mode selection of MTB and DTB, the waveform
with highlighted portion and magnified waveform of the portion
can be displayed simultaneously on the screen.
51. Delay time based Oscilloscopes
MainTime
Base MTB
Un-blanking
circuit
Voltage
comparator
Delayed Time
Base DTB
Un-blanking
circuit
Summing
Horizontal deflection
amplifier
Triggerlevel
control
ToCRT grid
Ramp output
+V
-V
+V
-V
MTB
Un-blanking
pulse
MTB ramp
waveform
DC trigger level
DTB ramp
waveform
DTB
Un-blanking
pulse
summed
Un-blanking
pulse
summed
Un-blanking
pulse
td
DTB
time
52. Digital Multimeters
Digital multimeters (DMMs) are often (inaccurately) referred
to as digital voltmeters or DVMs
at their heart is an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC)
A simplified block diagram
53. Measuring alternating quantities
Measuring alternating quantities
moving coil meters respond to both positive and negative voltages,
each producing deflections in opposite directions
a symmetrical alternating waveform will produce zero deflection
(the mean value of the waveform)
therefore we use a rectifier to produce a unidirectional signal
meter then displays the average value of the waveform
meters are often calibrated to directly display r.m.s. of sine waves
all readings are multiplied by 1.11 – the form factor for a sine wave
as a result waveforms of other forms will give incorrect readings
for example when measuring a square wave (for which the form
factor is 1.0, the meter will read 11% too high)
54. Analogue Ammeters and
Voltmeters
Most modern analogue
ammeters are based on
moving-coil meters
see Chapter 4 of textbook
Meters are characterised by their full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) and
their effective resistance (RM)
typical meters produce a f.s.d. for a current of 50 A – 1 mA
typical meters have an RM between a few ohms and a few
kilohms
55. Concept of Digital Measurement
The digital techniques used in Electronic
Instrumentation enrich the user with high accuracy
measurement.
56. Scheme besides digital system provides high input impedance
to ensure less loading effect on the input circuit. The numerical
readout of the digital system allows the worker to perform
measurement with zero parallax error unlike analog system.
57. What is Voltmeter
A Voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the
electrical potential difference between two points in an
electrical circuit.
There are generally seven types of voltmeter
1) Analog Voltmeter
2) Digital Voltmeter
3) Electrostatic Voltmeter
4) Oscilloscope Voltmeter
5) Micro-Voltmeter
6) Vacuum Tube Voltmeter
7) Solenoid Voltmeter
58. What’s so special being
“Digital”?
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy
of a few percent of full scale, and are used with voltages
from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital
voltmeters can be made with high accuracy, typically
better than 1%.
60. Introduction
Digital Voltmeter is an instrument which use to measured the
voltage & display the measured voltage using LCDs or LEDs to
display the result in a floating point format. They are an instrument of
choice for voltage measurements in all kinds of situations.
Digital voltmeters usually have scales that are 0-0.3v, 0-3v, 0-30v, 0-
300v.
Digital voltmeter is essentially an analog to digital converter (A to D)
with a digital display
61. Working
INTEGRATOR:-The integrator stabilizes the voltage as a first step in
measuring it. It takes a brief time sample, integrates it and outputs a
proportional voltage. Integrating a time sample makes the voltmeter
more immune to noise in the signal.
ANALOG/DIGITAL CONVERTOR:-The analog/digital converter
or ADC, is the heart of the voltmeter. It is a clocked circuit that takes
an input voltage sample and outputs a number representing the voltage
value. Since it's clocked, you get a steady stream of numbers that
change when the input voltage changes.
62.
63. Advantages of Digital Voltmeter
Higher accuracy and resolution.
Greater speed.
No parallax.
Reduced human error.
Compatibility with other digital equipment
for further processing and recording.
64. Application
Digital voltmeter mostly used in electronics
laboratory & in industry for measure the voltage
between two points with accuracy.