This document discusses different types of cell transport mechanisms, including passive transport methods like diffusion and osmosis, as well as active transport. Diffusion is the passive movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of higher water potential to lower water potential. Active transport requires energy and uses protein pumps to move solutes against a concentration gradient.
This document summarizes the key steps in the tissue preparation process:
1) Obtaining a fresh specimen and fixing it to maintain its structure.
2) Dehydrating the tissue using increasing concentrations of alcohol.
3) Clearing the tissue using a solvent like xylene to remove alcohol.
4) Infiltrating the tissue with wax to embed and block it out for sectioning.
Cell movement is accomplished through the cytoskeleton, which is composed of three main types of fibers: actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Actin filaments interact with motor proteins like myosin to generate movement and play roles in cell adhesion, crawling, and contraction. Microtubules and their motor proteins kinesin and dynein facilitate intracellular transport and movement of cilia and flagella. Intermediate filaments provide structural support to cells but are not involved in motility. The three fiber types work together with associated proteins to control cell shape, division, transport, and movement.
Plant tissues are classified into meristematic tissues and permanent tissues. Meristematic tissues consist of actively dividing cells found in specific regions of plants, such as the tips of stems and roots, and are responsible for growth. There are three types of meristematic tissue: apical, lateral, and intercalary. Permanent tissues derive from meristematic tissues and take on permanent shapes and functions. There are three types of permanent tissues - simple tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, and complex tissues like xylem and phloem that make up the vascular system. Xylem transports water and minerals throughout the plant, while phloem transports sugars and nutrients.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
This document provides an overview of the ultrastructure and characteristic features of bacteria. It discusses the general morphology of bacteria and describes several key structures. Bacteria have a cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and may contain structures like flagella, pili, capsules, and plasmids. The document contrasts gram positive and gram negative bacterial cell walls. It provides details on the components and functions of bacterial cell membranes, peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and lipopolysaccharides. Reproduction, nutrition, distribution, resistance and size of bacterial cells are also summarized.
This document discusses the cultivation of anaerobic bacteria. It outlines that bacteria are classified based on their oxygen requirements into obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, and microaerophilic bacteria. It describes suitable specimens for anaerobic culture including abscesses, wounds, and tissues. It also discusses transport of specimens, emphasizing they must be transported immediately to the laboratory in an anaerobic transport system. Methods for culturing anaerobes include using reduced media, culturing deep in agar tubes, using anaerobic gas packs, and incubating in an anaerobic chamber.
This document discusses capsule staining, which is a technique used to identify the presence of bacterial capsules under a light microscope. It begins by defining bacterial capsules and explaining their functions, which include helping bacteria resist phagocytosis and providing protection. It then discusses the principle of capsule staining, which uses a negative stain to contrast the unstained capsule against stained bacterial cells. The procedure involves smearing a bacterial culture onto a slide with negative stain, staining with a counterstain like crystal violet, and examining under a microscope for unstained capsules surrounding stained cells. Examples of capsule-containing bacteria that can be identified this way include Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus anthracis.
Introduction
Sterilization method
Equipment's involved in large scale sterilization
Sterilization indicators
Evaluation of efficiency of sterilization /Sterility testing
Control of microbial growth using Physical & Chemical MethodsAFTAB H. ABBASI
The document discusses various physical and chemical methods for controlling microbial growth. It describes physical methods such as heat (boiling, pasteurization, autoclaving), filtration, low temperatures (refrigeration, freezing), and radiation (ultraviolet light, ionizing). Chemical methods discussed include phenols, halogens like iodine and chlorine, and iodophors. The document provides details on the mechanisms of various methods and their applications in sterilization and disinfection.
This document summarizes the key steps in the tissue preparation process:
1) Obtaining a fresh specimen and fixing it to maintain its structure.
2) Dehydrating the tissue using increasing concentrations of alcohol.
3) Clearing the tissue using a solvent like xylene to remove alcohol.
4) Infiltrating the tissue with wax to embed and block it out for sectioning.
Cell movement is accomplished through the cytoskeleton, which is composed of three main types of fibers: actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Actin filaments interact with motor proteins like myosin to generate movement and play roles in cell adhesion, crawling, and contraction. Microtubules and their motor proteins kinesin and dynein facilitate intracellular transport and movement of cilia and flagella. Intermediate filaments provide structural support to cells but are not involved in motility. The three fiber types work together with associated proteins to control cell shape, division, transport, and movement.
Plant tissues are classified into meristematic tissues and permanent tissues. Meristematic tissues consist of actively dividing cells found in specific regions of plants, such as the tips of stems and roots, and are responsible for growth. There are three types of meristematic tissue: apical, lateral, and intercalary. Permanent tissues derive from meristematic tissues and take on permanent shapes and functions. There are three types of permanent tissues - simple tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, and complex tissues like xylem and phloem that make up the vascular system. Xylem transports water and minerals throughout the plant, while phloem transports sugars and nutrients.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
This document provides an overview of the ultrastructure and characteristic features of bacteria. It discusses the general morphology of bacteria and describes several key structures. Bacteria have a cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and may contain structures like flagella, pili, capsules, and plasmids. The document contrasts gram positive and gram negative bacterial cell walls. It provides details on the components and functions of bacterial cell membranes, peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and lipopolysaccharides. Reproduction, nutrition, distribution, resistance and size of bacterial cells are also summarized.
This document discusses the cultivation of anaerobic bacteria. It outlines that bacteria are classified based on their oxygen requirements into obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, and microaerophilic bacteria. It describes suitable specimens for anaerobic culture including abscesses, wounds, and tissues. It also discusses transport of specimens, emphasizing they must be transported immediately to the laboratory in an anaerobic transport system. Methods for culturing anaerobes include using reduced media, culturing deep in agar tubes, using anaerobic gas packs, and incubating in an anaerobic chamber.
This document discusses capsule staining, which is a technique used to identify the presence of bacterial capsules under a light microscope. It begins by defining bacterial capsules and explaining their functions, which include helping bacteria resist phagocytosis and providing protection. It then discusses the principle of capsule staining, which uses a negative stain to contrast the unstained capsule against stained bacterial cells. The procedure involves smearing a bacterial culture onto a slide with negative stain, staining with a counterstain like crystal violet, and examining under a microscope for unstained capsules surrounding stained cells. Examples of capsule-containing bacteria that can be identified this way include Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus anthracis.
Introduction
Sterilization method
Equipment's involved in large scale sterilization
Sterilization indicators
Evaluation of efficiency of sterilization /Sterility testing
Control of microbial growth using Physical & Chemical MethodsAFTAB H. ABBASI
The document discusses various physical and chemical methods for controlling microbial growth. It describes physical methods such as heat (boiling, pasteurization, autoclaving), filtration, low temperatures (refrigeration, freezing), and radiation (ultraviolet light, ionizing). Chemical methods discussed include phenols, halogens like iodine and chlorine, and iodophors. The document provides details on the mechanisms of various methods and their applications in sterilization and disinfection.
Physical parameters for growth & cultivation of bacteriaPulipati Sowjanya
The physical parameters required for bacterial growth include temperature, pH, and gaseous requirements. Temperature affects bacterial growth rates, with psychrophiles growing at 0-20°C, mesophiles at 25-40°C, and thermophiles at 50-80°C or higher. Bacteria also require specific pH ranges, with acidophiles growing best at pH 0-5.5, neutraphiles at pH 5.5-8, and alkaliphiles at pH 7.5-14. Additionally, bacteria have different oxygen requirements, including aerobic, anaerobic, facultative, aerotolerant, and microaerophilic bacteria. Special cultivation techniques are needed for growing strict anaer
Eukaryotic cells have complex internal structures that allow them to be larger and more specialized than prokaryotic cells. They have a nucleus that contains their DNA and organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts that perform specialized functions. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeletons and can develop external structures like flagella and cilia. This complex internal organization allows eukaryotic cells to form multicellular organisms and carry out complex processes like photosynthesis.
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts - the filament, basal body, and hook. The filament is the longest, rigid structure made of the protein flagellin. The basal body is embedded in the cell and contains protein rings. The hook connects the filament to the basal body. The basal body contains protein rings and a central rod that span the cell membranes. Rotation of the flagellum is driven by a motor composed of a rotor and stator. Proton motive force powers the motor and causes clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation for movement or tumbling.
This document discusses various culture methods used for bacteria, including their purposes and procedures. Streak culture is used to isolate bacteria in pure culture and obtain separated colonies. Lawn culture provides uniform bacterial growth for tests like phage typing. Stroke and stab cultures provide pure bacterial growth for diagnostic tests. Pour plate culture allows estimating bacterial counts and is used for urine cultures. Liquid cultures are used for tests like blood cultures and continuous culture. Anaerobic culture methods aim to reduce oxygen levels using techniques like vacuum production, gas displacement, chemical or biological oxygen absorption, or reducing agents in media.
This document discusses techniques for obtaining pure microbial cultures, including aseptic technique. It describes how Robert Koch established methods to prove that microbes cause specific diseases. Streak plate, pour plate, and spread plate techniques are explained for isolating pure cultures from mixed samples on nutrient agar plates. Maintaining aseptic conditions is important to prevent environmental contamination of cultures. Pure cultures allow study of individual microbial species and are used in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases.
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled prokaryotes that can exist as single cells or in chains and clusters. They lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria come in a variety of shapes (cocci, bacilli, spirilla, etc.) and arrangements (diplococci, streptococci) and have structures like flagella, pili, and cell walls. The cell wall composition differs between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, determining how they are stained using the Gram staining technique. Bacteria inhabit nearly all environments on Earth.
This lab report describes an experiment using paper chromatography to separate and identify the components in a mixture of inks. The student spotted samples of blue ink, black ink, and a mixture on a chromatography paper strip and developed it in a solution of 60% ethanol and 40% water. This caused the different components to travel different distances up the paper based on how strongly they were absorbed by the stationary paper versus the mobile solvent. The student then calculated retardation factors to quantify the separation and identified the individual inks. Paper chromatography is commonly used to analyze mixtures and study processes like DNA sequencing, food testing, and drug detection.
This is a rundown of some staining techniques used in microbiology, including simple staining, negative staining, gram staining, acid-fast staining, endospore staining, and flagellar staining.
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to lower concentration due to random molecular motion. It plays an important role in pharmaceutical sciences, including drug release from dosage forms and permeation of drugs through tissues. There are different types of diffusion such as passive diffusion down a concentration gradient, and active transport against a gradient. Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion as proportional to the concentration gradient. Diffusion is measured using devices like the Franz diffusion cell, where a membrane separates drug and receptor compartments to assess permeation over time. Diffusion-controlled drug release systems rely on drug diffusing out of insoluble matrices or reservoirs over time.
This document discusses light microscopes. It begins by defining a microscope as an instrument used to view objects too small to see with the naked eye. It then describes the basic components and workings of light microscopes, including lenses that magnify objects, different types like brightfield and phase contrast, and applications in biology and medicine like pathology. Phase contrast microscopy is explained in more detail, noting how it uses interference of light waves passing through a specimen to visualize differences in brightness of structures. In closing, the document outlines several uses of light microscopes across various fields.
This document describes a hot air oven, which is an electrically operated device that uses heating coils to convert electrical energy to heat energy. A thermostat controls the temperature between 50-300 degrees Celsius. Hot air circulates in the chamber through convection, sterilizing items on shelves by heating their outer surfaces. Key components include an aluminum chamber, fan, insulation, thermostat, and temperature controller. Items are placed on shelves and the oven is turned on for the required time to sterilize before removing the items.
This document discusses types of anaerobic bacteria and methods for culturing anaerobes. It describes three types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes that cannot grow in oxygen, aerotolerant anaerobes that can tolerate limited oxygen, and microaerophilic bacteria that require oxygen. It also outlines several methods for culturing anaerobes, including producing a vacuum, oxygen displacement using hydrogen or carbon dioxide gas, oxygen absorption using copper or reducing agents, and using anaerobic chambers or glove boxes. Specimen collection and transport are also addressed.
Because microbial cytoplasm is usually transparent, it is necessary to stain microorganisms before they can be viewed with the light microscope. In some cases, staining is unnecessary, for example when microorganisms are very large or when motility is to be studied, and a drop of the microorganisms can be placed directly on the slide and observed.
The water bath is an
instrument used in the
laboratory for carrying out
serological, biomedical,
and pharmaceutical tests at
specific temperature ranges.
Bacteria require certain environmental conditions to grow and multiply, including temperature, pH, oxygen, water, and nutrients. Bacterial metabolism allows bacteria to obtain energy and synthesize cellular components through catabolic and anabolic processes. The products of bacterial anabolism like toxins, enzymes, antibiotics, and pigments have medical significance related to pathogenicity, treatment of disease, and identification of bacteria.
Bacteria cultivation NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
NUTRITIONAL TYPES OF BACTERIA
PHOTOTROPHS
CHEMOTROPHS
AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPH
OBLIGATE PARASITE
BACTERIOLOGICAL MEDIA
TYPES OF MEDIA
PHYSICAL CONDITION FOR GROWTH
CULTIVATION OF AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
This document discusses sterility indicators, which are used to check whether sterilization processes have eliminated microorganisms. It describes three main types of sterility indicators: physical indicators monitor sterilization parameters like time and temperature; chemical indicators undergo color changes to indicate sterilization; and biological indicators use bacterial spores to confirm sterilization through lack of growth. The document provides examples of specific indicators used for different sterilization methods and concludes that sterility indicators visually confirm cleaning and sterilization procedures were properly conducted.
This document discusses various staining techniques used in microscopy to visualize bacteria and other microscopic organisms. It describes different types of stains including simple stains that color all structures the same and differential stains that color different structures differently. Specific staining techniques are explained, including Gram staining to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast staining for mycobacteria, and endospore staining. The document provides details on procedures, requirements, and results for common staining methods.
All living things are made up of cells, which are the basic units of structure and function. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotes, which do not have a nucleus or intracellular compartments, and eukaryotes, which have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and other intracellular compartments. Different types of microscopes, such as light microscopes and electron microscopes, are used to observe and take pictures of cells.
This document discusses the structures and functions of various cell organelles. It describes the nucleus as controlling most cell processes and containing DNA. It notes that ribosomes assemble proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum completes protein assembly, and the Golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins. Finally, it explains that chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, mitochondria perform cellular respiration, and cell membranes and walls form cellular boundaries.
Physical parameters for growth & cultivation of bacteriaPulipati Sowjanya
The physical parameters required for bacterial growth include temperature, pH, and gaseous requirements. Temperature affects bacterial growth rates, with psychrophiles growing at 0-20°C, mesophiles at 25-40°C, and thermophiles at 50-80°C or higher. Bacteria also require specific pH ranges, with acidophiles growing best at pH 0-5.5, neutraphiles at pH 5.5-8, and alkaliphiles at pH 7.5-14. Additionally, bacteria have different oxygen requirements, including aerobic, anaerobic, facultative, aerotolerant, and microaerophilic bacteria. Special cultivation techniques are needed for growing strict anaer
Eukaryotic cells have complex internal structures that allow them to be larger and more specialized than prokaryotic cells. They have a nucleus that contains their DNA and organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts that perform specialized functions. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeletons and can develop external structures like flagella and cilia. This complex internal organization allows eukaryotic cells to form multicellular organisms and carry out complex processes like photosynthesis.
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts - the filament, basal body, and hook. The filament is the longest, rigid structure made of the protein flagellin. The basal body is embedded in the cell and contains protein rings. The hook connects the filament to the basal body. The basal body contains protein rings and a central rod that span the cell membranes. Rotation of the flagellum is driven by a motor composed of a rotor and stator. Proton motive force powers the motor and causes clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation for movement or tumbling.
This document discusses various culture methods used for bacteria, including their purposes and procedures. Streak culture is used to isolate bacteria in pure culture and obtain separated colonies. Lawn culture provides uniform bacterial growth for tests like phage typing. Stroke and stab cultures provide pure bacterial growth for diagnostic tests. Pour plate culture allows estimating bacterial counts and is used for urine cultures. Liquid cultures are used for tests like blood cultures and continuous culture. Anaerobic culture methods aim to reduce oxygen levels using techniques like vacuum production, gas displacement, chemical or biological oxygen absorption, or reducing agents in media.
This document discusses techniques for obtaining pure microbial cultures, including aseptic technique. It describes how Robert Koch established methods to prove that microbes cause specific diseases. Streak plate, pour plate, and spread plate techniques are explained for isolating pure cultures from mixed samples on nutrient agar plates. Maintaining aseptic conditions is important to prevent environmental contamination of cultures. Pure cultures allow study of individual microbial species and are used in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases.
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled prokaryotes that can exist as single cells or in chains and clusters. They lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria come in a variety of shapes (cocci, bacilli, spirilla, etc.) and arrangements (diplococci, streptococci) and have structures like flagella, pili, and cell walls. The cell wall composition differs between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, determining how they are stained using the Gram staining technique. Bacteria inhabit nearly all environments on Earth.
This lab report describes an experiment using paper chromatography to separate and identify the components in a mixture of inks. The student spotted samples of blue ink, black ink, and a mixture on a chromatography paper strip and developed it in a solution of 60% ethanol and 40% water. This caused the different components to travel different distances up the paper based on how strongly they were absorbed by the stationary paper versus the mobile solvent. The student then calculated retardation factors to quantify the separation and identified the individual inks. Paper chromatography is commonly used to analyze mixtures and study processes like DNA sequencing, food testing, and drug detection.
This is a rundown of some staining techniques used in microbiology, including simple staining, negative staining, gram staining, acid-fast staining, endospore staining, and flagellar staining.
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to lower concentration due to random molecular motion. It plays an important role in pharmaceutical sciences, including drug release from dosage forms and permeation of drugs through tissues. There are different types of diffusion such as passive diffusion down a concentration gradient, and active transport against a gradient. Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion as proportional to the concentration gradient. Diffusion is measured using devices like the Franz diffusion cell, where a membrane separates drug and receptor compartments to assess permeation over time. Diffusion-controlled drug release systems rely on drug diffusing out of insoluble matrices or reservoirs over time.
This document discusses light microscopes. It begins by defining a microscope as an instrument used to view objects too small to see with the naked eye. It then describes the basic components and workings of light microscopes, including lenses that magnify objects, different types like brightfield and phase contrast, and applications in biology and medicine like pathology. Phase contrast microscopy is explained in more detail, noting how it uses interference of light waves passing through a specimen to visualize differences in brightness of structures. In closing, the document outlines several uses of light microscopes across various fields.
This document describes a hot air oven, which is an electrically operated device that uses heating coils to convert electrical energy to heat energy. A thermostat controls the temperature between 50-300 degrees Celsius. Hot air circulates in the chamber through convection, sterilizing items on shelves by heating their outer surfaces. Key components include an aluminum chamber, fan, insulation, thermostat, and temperature controller. Items are placed on shelves and the oven is turned on for the required time to sterilize before removing the items.
This document discusses types of anaerobic bacteria and methods for culturing anaerobes. It describes three types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes that cannot grow in oxygen, aerotolerant anaerobes that can tolerate limited oxygen, and microaerophilic bacteria that require oxygen. It also outlines several methods for culturing anaerobes, including producing a vacuum, oxygen displacement using hydrogen or carbon dioxide gas, oxygen absorption using copper or reducing agents, and using anaerobic chambers or glove boxes. Specimen collection and transport are also addressed.
Because microbial cytoplasm is usually transparent, it is necessary to stain microorganisms before they can be viewed with the light microscope. In some cases, staining is unnecessary, for example when microorganisms are very large or when motility is to be studied, and a drop of the microorganisms can be placed directly on the slide and observed.
The water bath is an
instrument used in the
laboratory for carrying out
serological, biomedical,
and pharmaceutical tests at
specific temperature ranges.
Bacteria require certain environmental conditions to grow and multiply, including temperature, pH, oxygen, water, and nutrients. Bacterial metabolism allows bacteria to obtain energy and synthesize cellular components through catabolic and anabolic processes. The products of bacterial anabolism like toxins, enzymes, antibiotics, and pigments have medical significance related to pathogenicity, treatment of disease, and identification of bacteria.
Bacteria cultivation NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
NUTRITIONAL TYPES OF BACTERIA
PHOTOTROPHS
CHEMOTROPHS
AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPH
OBLIGATE PARASITE
BACTERIOLOGICAL MEDIA
TYPES OF MEDIA
PHYSICAL CONDITION FOR GROWTH
CULTIVATION OF AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
This document discusses sterility indicators, which are used to check whether sterilization processes have eliminated microorganisms. It describes three main types of sterility indicators: physical indicators monitor sterilization parameters like time and temperature; chemical indicators undergo color changes to indicate sterilization; and biological indicators use bacterial spores to confirm sterilization through lack of growth. The document provides examples of specific indicators used for different sterilization methods and concludes that sterility indicators visually confirm cleaning and sterilization procedures were properly conducted.
This document discusses various staining techniques used in microscopy to visualize bacteria and other microscopic organisms. It describes different types of stains including simple stains that color all structures the same and differential stains that color different structures differently. Specific staining techniques are explained, including Gram staining to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast staining for mycobacteria, and endospore staining. The document provides details on procedures, requirements, and results for common staining methods.
All living things are made up of cells, which are the basic units of structure and function. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotes, which do not have a nucleus or intracellular compartments, and eukaryotes, which have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and other intracellular compartments. Different types of microscopes, such as light microscopes and electron microscopes, are used to observe and take pictures of cells.
This document discusses the structures and functions of various cell organelles. It describes the nucleus as controlling most cell processes and containing DNA. It notes that ribosomes assemble proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum completes protein assembly, and the Golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins. Finally, it explains that chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, mitochondria perform cellular respiration, and cell membranes and walls form cellular boundaries.
The document compares organelles in a cell to different parts of a school, with the nucleus acting as the office that runs everything, the nucleolus as the principal, the cell membrane as the outer walls, ribosomes as students in classrooms provided by the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria as the gym providing energy, the Golgi apparatus as the janitor, vacuoles as water fountains containing liquids, lysosomes as bathrooms disposing of waste, cytoplasm as the school itself, and chromosomes as the secretary.
This document summarizes the structure and function of cells and their organelles. It discusses that cells have three main jobs: to produce energy through cellular respiration and photosynthesis using mitochondria and chloroplasts respectively, to produce proteins using the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, and to reproduce by copying DNA in the nucleus and dividing cells using centrioles. The organelles each have specialized structures and functions that allow cells to carry out these essential life processes.
The document discusses the end products of digestion and absorption of nutrients. Nutrients like glucose and amino acids are absorbed differently, with glucose entering capillaries through facilitated diffusion and other nutrients entering the villus through simple diffusion across the epithelium. The document also mentions microvilli and villi in relation to absorption.
The document provides a word search puzzle with clues to the names of cell organelles. Across clues include microtubules, mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, plasma membrane, vacuoles, vesicles. Down clues include chromosomes, cell wall, flagella, chloroplasts, bacteria, centrioles, cytoplasm. The puzzle covers major organelles and their functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
The document outlines a cell analogy project where students create an analogy comparing a cell to something familiar like a city. It provides an example chart comparing cell parts like the nucleus and ribosomes to parts of a city like city hall and construction sites. Students are then instructed to work in groups to develop their own cell analogy, draw a poster, and complete a chart matching cell parts to their analogy.
The document summarizes cell theory, including its origins and key developments. It describes how Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 and named them. In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden suggested cells were the basic unit of life. In 1858, Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, completing cell theory. The theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic functional units of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Cells are the basic building blocks of life. They can be single-celled organisms or part of multicellular organisms. Cells are classified based on whether they have a nucleus or not. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells like human and plant cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. The nucleus controls cell activities and contains DNA. Organelles like the mitochondria and chloroplasts allow cells to perform essential functions like respiration and photosynthesis. Cells reproduce through fission in prokaryotes and mitosis or meiosis in eukaryotes.
El documento describe las propiedades químicas y físicas del agua. Químicamente, el agua reacciona con óxidos ácidos y básicos, metales y no metales, y forma sales hidratadas. Físicamente, el agua tiene un punto de ebullición de 100°C, punto de congelación de 0°C, y es un excelente solvente debido a la formación de puentes de hidrógeno. El agua también es importante para la termorregulación del cuerpo y mantiene el equilibrio hidromineral.
This work is done in IIT-M (Indian Institute of Technology- Madras) with help of Indian Academy of Science during June 2011-Oct 2011 under Dr Karunagaran Devarajan sir
Este documento describe los principios básicos de la nutrición y la alimentación, incluyendo los principales nutrientes (glúcidos, lípidos, proteínas, vitaminas, sales minerales y agua), sus funciones y fuentes alimentarias. También explica las necesidades nutricionales del cuerpo humano y los tipos de dietas equilibradas, así como algunos problemas relacionados con la alimentación como la obesidad y la anemia.
The document discusses passive diffusion through the cell membrane. It begins by describing the cell membrane as a flexible, semipermeable barrier that controls what enters and exits the cell while allowing communication. It then explains that passive diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from an area of higher to lower concentration through the cell membrane without requiring energy. Specifically, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse passively in this way.
The word cell is derived from the Latin word “cellula” which means “a little room”
It was the British botanist Robert Hooke who, in 1664, while examining a slice of bottle cork under a microscope, found its structure resembling the box-like living quarters of the monks in a monastery, and coined the word “cells”
The Fundamental Unit Of Life Class 9th By ADHWEAT GUPTAAdhweat Gupta
The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes that cells can be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. The key components of a typical cell are the cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm and nucleus. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material in the form of chromosomes and controls cell activities. The discovery of cells is also summarized, noting that Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 and Leeuwenhoek later studied living cells under a microscope.
- The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms. Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
- The cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, new cells are produced from existing cells, and cells are the basic units of life.
- Cells come in a wide range of sizes, from bacteria which are 0.1-0.5 micrometers, to ostrich egg cells which are 170x130 mm.
- Key parts of the cell include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles like mitochondria and ribosomes, the nucleus containing DNA, and structures that vary between plant and animal cells like chloroplasts and vacuoles.
- Technology absorption refers to acquiring, developing, assimilating, and utilizing technological knowledge and capabilities from external sources. It involves hardware, software, brainware, and support networks.
- Technology adaptation occurs when parameters of acquired technology are changed to meet local needs or infrastructure constraints.
- Technology diffusion is the spread of new technologies, products, services, or processes from one entity to another over time. It typically follows an S-curve adoption pattern from innovators to early adopters to the mainstream.
- Organizations must properly manage technology absorption with support from management, clear agreements, training, and compliance with government guidelines requiring disclosure of absorption efforts.
The document discusses the human digestive system. It describes the major components of food and the process of digestion. The major parts of the digestive system are named and their functions outlined, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated digestive glands like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands. Key enzymes produced by these glands that break down carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It begins by describing the initial observations of the ER in 1945 and defines it as a network of tubules, vesicles and flattened sacs within cells. There are two main types - the rough ER (RER) which is studded with ribosomes, and the smooth ER (SER) which lacks ribosomes. The RER synthesizes proteins and is involved in glycoprotein formation, while the SER functions in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification, and production of other cell organelles. Transport between the ER and Golgi apparatus occurs via transport vesicles. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a form of SER found in muscle cells and stores and
Protists use various methods of locomotion including amoeboid movement, cilia, flagella, and some are nonmotile. They reproduce through mitosis, conjugation which involves the exchange of micronuclei between two cells, or alternation of generations with both asexual reproduction via mitosis and sexual reproduction through meiosis and fertilization.
This document discusses the challenges of classifying protists, which are eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Protists exhibit a wide variety in their characteristics such as being photosynthetic or motile, unicellular or multicellular, and living in various habitats. They are difficult to classify because some protists share similarities with organisms from other kingdoms. While classification of protists continues to evolve, they are believed to have been the first eukaryotes and some protist ancestors gave rise to plants, animals and fungi based on their evolutionary relationships.
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that are classified as bacteria or archaea. They vary greatly in size, shape, movement, nutrition, and metabolism. Prokaryotes play important roles in the living world as decomposers, producers, and nitrogen fixers, recycling nutrients and producing food and biomass that supports food chains. They are ecologically important due to their diversity and roles in ecosystems.
Viruses can only reproduce by infecting living cells. There are two main types of viral infections: lytic infections immediately use the host cell to replicate new viruses which then burst out and kill the cell, while lysogenic infections insert viral DNA into the host cell's genome where it remains inactive for many generations before replicating in a lytic cycle. Viruses either replicate immediately through lytic infection or initially persist in an inactive state through lysogenic infection within the host cell before replicating.
This document discusses modern evolutionary classification and how it differs from Linnaean classification. It explains how to make and interpret cladograms using shared derived characters to show evolutionary relationships between organisms. DNA sequences are also used in classification. Cladograms place organisms in clades based on shared ancestors and can be used to classify organisms differently than traditional taxonomic groups. Constructing cladograms involves identifying derived characters in organisms.
The document discusses several topics related to land use including the tragedy of the commons, externalities, maximum sustainable yield, public lands management, rangelands, forests, timber harvesting practices, fire management, federal land regulations, residential land types, urban sprawl, and government policies influencing land use and development. It also introduces the concept of smart growth which promotes mixed land uses, transportation choices, and preserving open spaces.
Genes do not always follow Mendel's principles of dominance and segregation. Some alleles show incomplete dominance where neither is fully dominant. Others show codominance where both alleles are expressed simultaneously. Multiple alleles exist for some genes with more than two variants. Polygenic traits are influenced by multiple interacting genes and show wide variety in phenotypes. Maternal inheritance and genetic imprinting also influence traits. While an organism's genotype determines traits, its phenotype is also influenced by environmental conditions interacting with its genes.
This document discusses Mendel's principles of genetics and probability. It explains how geneticists use Punnett squares to determine the likelihood of traits being passed from parents to offspring based on dominant and recessive alleles. The principles of independent assortment and segregation are described, where genes for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation. This allows geneticists to predict phenotypic outcomes and offspring ratios using Punnett squares and determine genotypes that are homozygous or heterozygous.
This document describes a dihybrid cross between two hypothetical traits: hair length and eye color. The parents are both heterozygous for short/long hair and black/red eyes. A Punnett square is constructed with the parents' alleles to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring. The offspring have 9 chances to be short haired with black eyes, 3 chances each for short haired with red eyes and long haired with black eyes, and 1 chance for long haired with red eyes.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that (1) when he crossed plants with contrasting traits, the hybrid offspring only showed traits of one parent, (2) in the next generation, the traits separated and were expressed in a 3:1 ratio, with the dominant trait appearing more often. His findings supported that inheritance is determined by discrete units (genes and alleles) that are transmitted from parents to offspring and can be dominant or recessive.
Mutations are heritable changes in genetic information that fall into two categories: gene mutations and chromosomal mutations. Gene mutations include point mutations such as substitutions that change a single base, and insertions or deletions that add or remove a single base. Chromosomal mutations involve deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations of larger chromosomal segments. Mutations can harm organisms by dramatically changing proteins or gene activity, help organisms by producing useful new proteins, or have no effect.
This document discusses RNA, ribosomes, and protein synthesis. It explains that DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA, which directs the process of translation where transfer RNA and ribosomes work together to assemble amino acids into proteins according to the genetic code stored in DNA. The central dogma of molecular biology is that DNA makes RNA makes protein, with three types of RNA - messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA - all playing important roles in the transfer of genetic information from DNA to protein.
During development, cells differentiate to become specialized cell types like muscle, nerve, or skin cells. Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can differentiate into various cell types. There are embryonic stem cells found in early-stage embryos and adult stem cells found in tissues like bone marrow. Stem cells may help with regenerative medicine by repairing or replacing damaged cells and tissues, but embryonic stem cell research raises ethical issues because it involves human embryos.
The document discusses the process of cell division in eukaryotic cells. It describes that cell division occurs through the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is further broken down into 4 main stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During these stages, the chromosomes condense, align, separate, and the nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis then partitions the cytoplasm to complete cell division into two daughter cells.
As cells grow larger, they face problems related to their surface area to volume ratio decreasing. This causes issues like an information overload for the DNA and insufficient material exchange. To address this, cells undergo cell division to split into two smaller daughter cells, maintaining a high surface area to volume ratio. Cells can also reproduce asexually by separating after duplicating their DNA, or sexually by fusing with another cell to produce offspring with a mix of both parents' genetic information.
The document describes the process of cellular respiration which occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvic acid molecules while producing ATP and NADH. The Krebs cycle further breaks down pyruvic acid to extract more energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. Finally, the electron transport chain uses the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to power ATP synthesis, producing about 36 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule through the entire cellular respiration process.
ATP is an important energy-storing molecule in cells that is produced when phosphate groups are added to ADP. Cells store energy by converting ADP to ATP, and release energy by breaking ATP back down. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, which converts sunlight into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates, allowing plants to produce ATP and be autotrophs.
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تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
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6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
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3. Passive Transport: Diffusion
Outside Cell
Cell Membrane
Inside Cell
Solutes
Higher concentration of solute
on one side of the membrane
than the other
Diffusion causes net movement
of solute particles toward side of
membrane with lower
concentration.
At equilibrium, particles move
equally in both directions, so
there is no net change.
10. Active Transport vs. Diffusion
Compare and contrast active transport and diffusion.
Editor's Notes
Read the lesson title aloud to students.
Click to show each of the learning objectives.
Tell students: This lesson will talk about movement of materials in and between cells.
There are two ways this happens: with and without energy.
Ask: Which one, active or passive, likely requires energy?
Answer: active
Hand out the Student Worksheets and have students create an outline of the information presented.
Spray some air freshener into the air facing the students (not too close).
Tell students to raise their hands when they can smell the spray.
Ask: What is happening to the spray?
Answer: The particles of the spray are slowly moving out into the room.
Ask: How did the particles start out?
Answer: They started all bunched together and then spread out.
Tell students: This tendency for things to move from bunched up to spread out is called diffusion. When the same particles of things are all bunched together it is called a high concentration, and when only a few things are in an area it is called a low concentration.
Ask students for another example of something in a high and low concentration.
Sample answer: a crowded room and one with just a few people
Ask: Did the air freshener need energy to undergo diffusion?
Answer: No, diffusion does not require energy for the particles to move. Diffusion is passive movement.
Tell students that diffusion is the driving force behind the movement of many substances across the cell membrane.
Explain to students that some materials, such as oxygen, diffuse across the cell membrane without using energy, while other materials require energy to pass through.
Introduce the image by identifying parts of the diagram.
Click to reveal the labels one at a time: the cell membrane, the inside of the cell, the outside of the cell, and solute molecules.
Ask: What do you notice about the solutes inside and outside the cell?
Answer: There are more solutes outside than inside.
Click to show the answer and delete the labels.
Click again to show next image in the series.
Ask: What do the arrows mean?
Answer: The arrows indicate movement of molecules.
Ask: How do the first and second images differ?
Answer: The first shows a higher concentration of a solute outside than inside a cell. The second shows a greater number of molecules moving in than moving out, as indicated by more arrows pointing in than out.
Click to show the next image.
Ask: How do you know equilibrium has been reached in the third image?
Answer: There are equal numbers of molecules on both sides of the membrane, and the arrows show about the same number of molecules moving in and moving out.
Emphasize that equilibrium does not mean that movement stops; rather, it continues in both directions, and the same concentration is maintained on both sides of the membrane.
Tell students: In some cases diffusion starts to happen, but the particles involved need assistance moving across the membrane.
They need help because the physical characteristics of the particle or of the membrane prevent free flow.
Explain that facilitated diffusion is the process in which molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the membrane pass through special protein channels. Although facilitated diffusion uses special channels, it is still diffusion, so it does not require any additional use of the cell’s energy.
Click to highlight the protein (aquaporin) in the image.
Explain that water diffuses through aquaporins because the lipids have hydrophobic areas. Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Tell students: The trick in understanding osmosis is that osmosis is about the movement of the water molecules, not the larger particles.
Ask volunteers to identify the labeled structures.
Students can identify these verbally or by writing on the board.
Click to reveal the answers one at a time.
Click again to reveal the label for sugar.
Point out that the sugar cannot cross the membrane.
Ask: Which side has the higher concentration of solute (non-water particles)?
Answer: right side
Ask: Which side has the lower concentration of water molecules?
Answer: right side
Ask: What do the white arrows in the figure represent?
Answer: movement of water molecules through aquaporins
Ask: Why are there more arrows pointing toward the right?
Answer: There are more water molecules on the left (higher concentration), so more molecules will move toward the right (toward the lower
concentration).
Ask: Why are there no arrows showing movement of the sugar molecules?
Answer: The sugar molecules cannot cross the membrane because the proper proteins are not present.
On the chalkboard or chart paper, draw a circle with some dots inside it, and add dots around the outside of the circle as well. The concentration of dots inside and outside the circle should be similar.
Tell students: The circle represents a cell, the dots represent various solutes, and the area around the cell represents the extracellular environment.
Ask a volunteer to add or remove solute particles in a way that would cause water to enter the cell from the extracellular environment.
Answer: The student should either add dots to the inside of the cell or erase dots from the outside of the cell.
Explain that this image is of a tube with a barrier, and that sugars dissolved in water are on each side of the barrier.
Ask: How would you describe the concentration gradient of the sugar?
Click to reveal the answer: There is more sugar on the right side.
Remind students that the barrier is permeable to water but not sugar.
Ask: What happens to the concentrations on each side of the membrane as water diffuses through?
Click to reveal the answer: The concentrations change until they reach equilibrium.
Ask: Why does the water level rise in the right side of the tube and drop in the left side?
Answer: The net movement of water molecules is to the right side, because initially the concentration of water is lower there compared to the sugar. The movement of water molecules across the barrier changes the water level on both sides of the tube.
Explain that water will tend to move across the membrane until equilibrium is reached. At that point, the concentrations of water and sugar will be the same on both sides of the membrane. When this happens, the two solutions will be isotonic. When the experiment began, the more concentrated sugar solution was hypertonic; the dilute sugar solution was hypotonic.
Tell students: Driven by differences in solute concentration, the net movement of water out of or into a cell produces a force known as osmotic pressure.
Click to reveal the “Isotonic” label.
Ask: What does “isotonic” mean?
Answer: The concentration of solutes is the same inside and outside the cell.
Ask: Which way will water flow?
Click to reveal the answer: Water molecules move equally in both directions.
Click to reveal the “Hypertonic” label.
Ask: What does “hypertonic” mean?
Answer: The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell.
Ask: Which way will water flow?
Answer: There will be a net movement of water molecules out of the cell.
Ask: What will happen to the cell?
Click to reveal the answer: The cell will shrink.
Click to reveal the “Hypotonic” label.
Ask: What does “hypotonic” mean?
Answer: The solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell.
Ask: Which way will water flow?
Answer: There will be a net movement of water molecules into the cell.
Ask: What will happen to the cell?
Click to reveal the answer: The cell will swell.
Explain the differences between plant and animal cells. Animal cells may burst in hypotonic situations, while cells with a cell wall may be able to maintain their shape because of the presence of the cell wall. However, higher osmotic pressure does weaken plant cells.
Relate this information to what happens when a lawn care company sprays a fertilizer-water mixture onto grass. Point out that if too much fertilizer and too little water are sprayed on grass, the grass may die and the lawn may turn brown.
Ask: Would the grass cells with a high concentration of fertilizer have gained or lost water?
Answer: lost water
Ask: Which plant cell in the figure shows what would happen to the grass at the cellular level?
Click to reveal the answer: the plant cell in the middle column, which shows water going out
Ask: Was the fertilizer-water mixture hypotonic or hypertonic compared to the cytoplasm in the grass cells?
Click to reveal the answer: The fertilizer-water mixture was hypertonic compared to the cytoplasm in the grass cells.
Ask: What if a cell needed to move materials against the concentration gradient, from an area of low to high concentration? What would be needed?
Answer: energy to move the particles against the natural flow of diffusion
Explain that energy is needed to get certain substances into or out of a cell because the cell membrane is selective. For substances that cannot pass through the membrane freely, active transport is used, and it requires energy.
Click to reveal the labels for and discuss each type of active transport:
Protein pumps: Energy from ATP is used to pump small molecules and ions across the cell membrane. Active transport proteins change shape during the process, binding substances on one side of the membrane and releasing them on the other.
Endocytosis: The membrane forms a pocket around a particle. The pocket then breaks loose from the outer portion of the cell membrane and forms a vesicle within the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis: The membrane of a vesicle surrounds the material, then fuses with the cell membrane. The contents are forced out of the cell.
Put students into groups of three. Give each group one of the types of active transport. More than one group can have the same type. Tell the students to prepare a charades-like demonstration of their type of active transport. Give them five minutes to prepare. Have each group perform in front of the class and have the other groups guess which type of transport is being acted out.
Explain that phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis, in which extensions of cytoplasm surround a particle and package it within a food vacuole. Amoebae and white blood cells (like the one seen on the slide) use phagocytosis.
Ask: Why is endocytosis an example of active transport and not facilitated diffusion?
Answer: Endocytosis requires energy to engulf a particle and form a vesicle around it.
Have students write a paragraph distinguishing active transport from diffusion.
Have students share their answer with a partner.
Ask volunteers to read their answers aloud.
Remind students that they should have been using their worksheets to take notes on the types of cell transport.
Divide students into small groups and instruct them to compare their outlines and add any important information that they were missing.
After a few minutes, create a master outline on the chalkboard or chart paper, using volunteers’ answers to complete the outline.
Use this opportunity to identify and discuss any points of confusion or misconceptions that students have.
Worksheet Answers:
Passive Transport
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Osmosis in cells
Active Transport
Protein pumps
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Bulk transport