This document discusses various aspects of data analysis. It outlines the basic steps in research and data analysis, including identifying the problem, collecting data, analyzing and interpreting results. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods are covered. Descriptive statistics are used to summarize data through measures like frequencies and central tendency. Inferential statistics allow generalization to populations through hypothesis testing using techniques like t-tests and chi-square tests. The document provides an overview of common statistical analysis methods and selecting the appropriate tests.

1. Data Analysis
Presented To:
Dr. Muhammad Ijaz Miraj
Presented By:
Aleeza Ahmad
M. Phil (LIS), 1st Semester
Minhaj University, Lahore

2. Contents
• Basics of the Topic
• Steps in the Process of Research
• Analyzing and Interpreting Data
• Steps Involved in Data Analysis
• Data Analysis Methods
• Data Analysis Research Methods
• Statistical Methods used for Analysis
• Selecting Among Tests of Significance
• Other Investigative Techniques
• Conclusion
• References

3. Basics of the Topic
• Research
• Data
• Data Analysis

4. Steps in the Process of Research
• Identifying the Research Problem
• Reviewing the Literature
• Selecting Participants/Samples
• Collecting Data
• Analyzing and Interpreting Data
• Reporting and Evaluating Research
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

5. Analyzing and Interpreting Data
• The researcher analyzes
▫ The themes
▫ General tendencies
• Provides Interpretations of the data

6. Steps involved in Data Analysis
• Before Data Collection
• After Data Collection

7. Before Data Collection
▫ Determine the method of data analysis
▫ Determine how to process the data
▫ Consult a statistician
▫ Prepare dummy tables

8. After Data Collection
▫ Process the data
▫ Prepare tables and graphs
▫ Analyze and interpret findings
▫ Consult again the statistician
▫ Prepare for editing
▫ Prepare for presentation

9. Data Analysis Methods
• Data analysis Research Methods
▫ Qualitative data analysis
▫ Quantitative data analysis
• Statistical Methods used for Analysis
▫ Descriptive Statistics
▫ Inferential Statistics

10. Qualitative Data Analysis
• Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
▫ Range of processes
▫ Procedures
▫ Move from the qualitative data
• QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy.
• The idea is
▫ To examine
 The meaningful content
 Symbolic content
(http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php 24)

11. Process of Qualitative data Analysis

12. Quantitative Data Analysis
• Quantitative data analysis
▫ You are expected to turn raw numbers into meaningful data
 Through the application of rational and critical thinking.
• Quantitative data analysis may include
▫ Calculation of frequencies of variables
▫ Differences between variables
• Quantitative approach is usually associated
▫ Finding evidence
▫ Hypotheses
(https://research-methodology.net/research-methods/data-analysis/quantitative-data-analysis/)

13. Stages of Quantitative data Analysis

14. Statistical Methods used for Analysis
• Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis:
(i) Descriptive Statistics
(ii) Inferential Statistics

15. Descriptive Data Analysis
• Descriptive Statistics deal with
▫ Tabulation of data
▫ Their presentation in
 Tabular
 Graphical
 Pictorial form
▫ Calculation of descriptive measures.
(Powell, R. at eil (2004). Basic research methods for librarians)

16. Types of Descriptive Data Analysis
• The major types of descriptive statistics are
 Frequencies
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measures of Variability
 Measures of Relative Position
 Measures of Relationship
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

17. Step Involved
• Preparing Data for Analysis
• Tabulation and Coding Procedure
• Summarizing the Data
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

18. Inferential Analysis
• Inferential Statistics are used for making inductive generalizations
▫ About populations
▫ Based on sample data
▫ Testing hypothesis
(Powell, R. at eil (2004). Basic research methods for librarians)
• Inferential statistics are data analysis techniques for determining
how likely it is that results obtained from a sample or samples are the
same results that would have been obtained from the entire
population.
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

19. Areas of Inferential Statistics
• There are two main areas of inferential statistics:
▫ Estimating parameters.
▫ Hypothesis tests.
(http://www.statisticshowto.com/inferential-statistics/)

20. Selecting Among Tests of Significance
• Parametric tests
• Nonparametric tests
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

21. Parametric Test: The t Test
• The t test is used
▫ To determine whether two groups of scores are significantly
different at a selected probability level.
▫ The basic strategy of the t test is to compare the actual difference
between the means of the groups (X1-X2) with the difference
expected by chance if the null hypothesis (i.e., no difference) is
true. This ratio is known as the t value.
• We can use Excel, SPSS, or a variety of other software
applications to conduct a t test.
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

22. Nonparametric tests: Chi Square
• Chi square, is a nonparametric test of significance appropriate.
• It is used to compare frequencies occurring in different
categories or groups.
• Chi square is computed by comparing the frequencies of each
variable observed in a study to the expected frequencies..
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

23. Other Investigative Techniques
• Data Mining
• Factor Analysis
• Structural Equation Modeling
(Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research)

24. Conclusion
• The Analysis section tells the reader what occurred during the
experiment by explaining the graph and data table etc.
• A data analysis report summarizes the results of an experiment
based on the purpose of the study

25. References
• Gay, L. R., at el. (2012). Educational Research
• Powell, R. at eil (2004). Basic research methods for librarians
• http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php 24
• https://research-methodology.net/research-methods/data-analysis/quantitative-data-
analysis/
• http://www.statisticshowto.com/inferential-statistics/