This document provides an overview of water harvesting techniques used historically and currently around the world. It discusses how water harvesting has been practiced for thousands of years in arid regions to irrigate crops and provide drinking water. The document then summarizes various water harvesting methods used historically in regions like the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. It outlines factors to consider when implementing water harvesting systems, such as rainfall patterns, land use, topography, and maintenance requirements. The purpose is to provide context around water harvesting and define different techniques while examining its use and resurgence today.
The document discusses mortar and concrete hollow blocks. Mortar is made from a mixture of fine aggregate, water, and cement that is used to bind bricks or stones. Concrete hollow blocks are large rectangular bricks made primarily from cement, sand, and gravel. They have hollow cores which make them lighter and more insulating than solid blocks. The document outlines the production process and advantages of using concrete hollow blocks for construction.
This document provides information about brick and stone building materials. It discusses the brief history of bricks, the types of bricks including sun-dried, burnt bricks in various classes. It also describes different brick bonds, standard brick sizes used in various countries and the types of stones including sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous stones. The key types of sedimentary stones discussed are limestone, sandstone, soapstone and fossil stone.
This document defines and describes various types of bricks and brick masonry terminology. It discusses the ideal composition of bricks, common brick sizes, and terms used to describe parts of bricks like headers, stretchers, arrises, and beds. It also explains different bonds used in brick masonry like English bond, Flemish bond, stretching bond, and their characteristics. Closers like queen closers, king closers and bats of different sizes are also defined.
The document provides an introduction to reinforced cement concrete (RCC). It discusses that steel is strong in both tension and compression, whereas concrete is strong only in compression. Steel reinforcement is used to increase the tensile strength of concrete. The combination of steel and concrete results in RCC, which has a weight of 25,000 N/cum. Steel is the most suitable reinforcing material due to its high tensile strength, elasticity, bond with concrete, and availability in India. Mild steel bars have plain surfaces while high yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars have deformations that increase bond strength. Design of RCC involves consideration of loads such as dead, live, wind, snow, and seismic loads.
Stabilized mud block (SMB) or pressed earth block is a building material made primarily from damp soil compressed at high pressure to form blocks. If the blocks are stabilized with a chemical binder such as Portland cement they are called compressed stabilized earth block (CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB).
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The document discusses cracks in buildings, their causes and prevention. It classifies cracks as structural or non-structural and by width, direction and appearance. Non-structural cracks are caused by thermal variation, chemical reactions, moisture movement, foundation issues and manufacturing defects. Thermal variation results from temperature changes causing expansion and contraction. Moisture movement from wetting and drying leads to reversible and irreversible movement. After construction, structural cracks can be repaired through epoxy injection, polyurethane injection or stitching cracks. The seminar provides information on identifying crack causes and selecting suitable repair techniques.
Building Resilience: Vernacular Strategies for Disaster-resistant Structures ...Simran Vats
India is a country that is prone to various disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, and landslides. These disasters have caused immense damage to life and property in the past.
One of the ways to mitigate the impact of these disasters is by constructing disaster-resistant structures using vernacular strategies.
Vernacular Strategies for Flood-Resistant Structures
In flood-prone areas, houses are constructed on raised platforms or stilts to prevent water from entering the house. The walls of the houses are made of materials that can withstand water damage such as bamboo, mud, and bricks.
Additionally, the roofs of the houses are sloped to allow rainwater to run off easily, and windows are placed at a higher level to prevent water from entering the house during floods.
Vernacular Strategies for Cyclone-Resistant Structures
In cyclone-prone areas, houses are constructed using materials that can withstand high winds such as bamboo, thatch, and mud. The roofs of the houses are sloped and reinforced to prevent them from being blown away.
Additionally, the windows of the houses are fitted with shutters to protect them from flying debris and the doors are made of strong materials to prevent them from being blown open.
Vernacular Strategies for Landslide-Resistant Structures
In landslide-prone areas, houses are constructed on stable ground and away from steep slopes. The houses are also designed to be lightweight and flexible to absorb the impact of landslides.
Furthermore, the houses are constructed using materials that can withstand the force of landslides such as bamboo, wood, and steel. The roofs of the houses are also sloped to allow rainwater to run off easily and prevent soil erosion.
Conclusion
Vernacular strategies for disaster-resistant structures have been developed over centuries by communities living in disaster-prone areas. These strategies not only help in mitigating the impact of disasters but also provide sustainable solutions that are cost-effective and environmentally friendly.
By incorporating these strategies into modern construction practices, we can create disaster-resistant structures that are resilient and can withstand the challenges posed by natural disasters.
The document discusses mortar and concrete hollow blocks. Mortar is made from a mixture of fine aggregate, water, and cement that is used to bind bricks or stones. Concrete hollow blocks are large rectangular bricks made primarily from cement, sand, and gravel. They have hollow cores which make them lighter and more insulating than solid blocks. The document outlines the production process and advantages of using concrete hollow blocks for construction.
This document provides information about brick and stone building materials. It discusses the brief history of bricks, the types of bricks including sun-dried, burnt bricks in various classes. It also describes different brick bonds, standard brick sizes used in various countries and the types of stones including sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous stones. The key types of sedimentary stones discussed are limestone, sandstone, soapstone and fossil stone.
This document defines and describes various types of bricks and brick masonry terminology. It discusses the ideal composition of bricks, common brick sizes, and terms used to describe parts of bricks like headers, stretchers, arrises, and beds. It also explains different bonds used in brick masonry like English bond, Flemish bond, stretching bond, and their characteristics. Closers like queen closers, king closers and bats of different sizes are also defined.
The document provides an introduction to reinforced cement concrete (RCC). It discusses that steel is strong in both tension and compression, whereas concrete is strong only in compression. Steel reinforcement is used to increase the tensile strength of concrete. The combination of steel and concrete results in RCC, which has a weight of 25,000 N/cum. Steel is the most suitable reinforcing material due to its high tensile strength, elasticity, bond with concrete, and availability in India. Mild steel bars have plain surfaces while high yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars have deformations that increase bond strength. Design of RCC involves consideration of loads such as dead, live, wind, snow, and seismic loads.
Stabilized mud block (SMB) or pressed earth block is a building material made primarily from damp soil compressed at high pressure to form blocks. If the blocks are stabilized with a chemical binder such as Portland cement they are called compressed stabilized earth block (CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB).
interesting civil engineering topics
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The document discusses cracks in buildings, their causes and prevention. It classifies cracks as structural or non-structural and by width, direction and appearance. Non-structural cracks are caused by thermal variation, chemical reactions, moisture movement, foundation issues and manufacturing defects. Thermal variation results from temperature changes causing expansion and contraction. Moisture movement from wetting and drying leads to reversible and irreversible movement. After construction, structural cracks can be repaired through epoxy injection, polyurethane injection or stitching cracks. The seminar provides information on identifying crack causes and selecting suitable repair techniques.
Building Resilience: Vernacular Strategies for Disaster-resistant Structures ...Simran Vats
India is a country that is prone to various disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, and landslides. These disasters have caused immense damage to life and property in the past.
One of the ways to mitigate the impact of these disasters is by constructing disaster-resistant structures using vernacular strategies.
Vernacular Strategies for Flood-Resistant Structures
In flood-prone areas, houses are constructed on raised platforms or stilts to prevent water from entering the house. The walls of the houses are made of materials that can withstand water damage such as bamboo, mud, and bricks.
Additionally, the roofs of the houses are sloped to allow rainwater to run off easily, and windows are placed at a higher level to prevent water from entering the house during floods.
Vernacular Strategies for Cyclone-Resistant Structures
In cyclone-prone areas, houses are constructed using materials that can withstand high winds such as bamboo, thatch, and mud. The roofs of the houses are sloped and reinforced to prevent them from being blown away.
Additionally, the windows of the houses are fitted with shutters to protect them from flying debris and the doors are made of strong materials to prevent them from being blown open.
Vernacular Strategies for Landslide-Resistant Structures
In landslide-prone areas, houses are constructed on stable ground and away from steep slopes. The houses are also designed to be lightweight and flexible to absorb the impact of landslides.
Furthermore, the houses are constructed using materials that can withstand the force of landslides such as bamboo, wood, and steel. The roofs of the houses are also sloped to allow rainwater to run off easily and prevent soil erosion.
Conclusion
Vernacular strategies for disaster-resistant structures have been developed over centuries by communities living in disaster-prone areas. These strategies not only help in mitigating the impact of disasters but also provide sustainable solutions that are cost-effective and environmentally friendly.
By incorporating these strategies into modern construction practices, we can create disaster-resistant structures that are resilient and can withstand the challenges posed by natural disasters.
Its all about the new environment friendly bricks that are now in more demand as compared to clay bricks. So how its useful and what it contains is explained here.
Cement mortar is a mixture used for masonry construction, such as between bricks. It binds the materials together and provides strength, stability, and durability to building structures. There are different types of mortars including lime, cement, surkhi, and mud mortars. Mortar hardens when it sets, forming an aggregate structure. Concrete is similar but contains coarse aggregates like gravel or stone, in addition to the binding materials, sand, and water. The document discusses the ingredients, mixing, curing, and testing of concrete, including its compressive strength and workability. Aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture and affect its properties.
Reinforced concrete lintels are now widely used as they are fireproof, durable, strong, economical and easy to construct. RCC lintels can be used for varying spans and load conditions without needing relieving arches. They are preferred over other lintel materials like wood, stone and brick due to disadvantages like decay, difficulty obtaining long stones, and weakness in tension. RCC lintels can be precast or cast-in-situ, with precast used for smaller spans up to 2 meters typically. Depth and reinforcement size depends on the span and load, with larger diameters like 12mm rebar used for spans over 3 meters.
Shotcrete is a concrete or mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a backing surface. It was invented in the early 1900s and has emerged as the preferred industry term to describe pneumatically applied concrete. There are two main processes - dry mix and wet mix. Dry mix involves pre-blended dry or semi-damp materials conveyed via air to the nozzle, while wet mix fully mixes all ingredients before projection. Shotcrete provides benefits over conventional concrete like density, homogeneity, strength, and ability to apply to any surface. It is widely used for rehabilitation of subway tunnels, domed roofs, highway culvert repair, and new concrete construction.
Bricks are building materials made from fired clay blocks used in masonry construction. They come in standard sizes like 230mm x 115mm x 75mm. Bricks have advantages like strength, durability, thermal performance, design flexibility, and fire resistance. The manufacturing process involves preparing clay soil, moulding bricks by hand or machine, drying for 7-14 days, and burning in clamps or kilns to harden the bricks.
This document provides details for estimating the quantities of concrete needed for various types of footings, including:
1. Single, stepped, sloped, and circular footings. Dimensions and quantities are given for each type.
2. A measurement sheet is included that outlines the work description, unit numbers, dimensions, and calculated quantities for each footing type. Dimensions provided include length, width, height/depth.
3. Formulas are shown for calculating volumes of concrete for the different footing configurations, such as rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular shapes.
This document provides information about the details of a construction materials course taught by Ms. Urmi Devi and Mr. Wahid Hasan. It lists the course name as "Details of Construction" and course number as CE 200. It then provides lists of student IDs and names enrolled in the course. The document continues by describing various types of cement and their constituents and properties. It also discusses aggregates like sand and stone chips used in concrete. Reinforcement bars or rebar sizes and grades are outlined. Finally, it briefly mentions other construction materials like structural wood, bamboo, bricks, concrete, mortar and admixtures.
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or dressed and then finished for building purposes, is called “Stone” and the art of building the structure with stones as constructional units is called “Stone Masonry”.
nry
Types of Rubble Masonry
Random Rubble Masonry
Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry
BUILT TO COURSES RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY
SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
UNCOURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
BUILT TO COURSES SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
REGULAR COURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
DRY RUBBLE MASONRY
ASHLAR MASONRY
ASHLER FINE / COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
RANDOM COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
ROUGH TOOLED ASHLER MASONRY
QUARRY FACED ASHLAR MASONRY
CHAMFERED ASHLAR MASONRY
ASHLAR FACING
rough ashlar stone masonic rough ashlarrough and pe
Ferrocement is a thin cement composite material reinforced with closely spaced layers of wire mesh. It consists of a cement mortar matrix reinforced with small diameter wire mesh. The mortar provides mass while the wire mesh provides tensile strength and ductility. Ferrocement can be constructed using a variety of techniques and has applications in marine structures, water and sanitation infrastructure, agriculture, housing and rural energy due to advantages like strength, ductility, impact resistance and impermeability.
The document describes different types of upper floors based on construction materials. It focuses on timber floors, which are classified as single joist, double joist, or triple joist/framed floors depending on their strength and span. Single joist floors are the simplest with spans up to 4 meters. Double joist floors are stronger, using binders for intermediate support of bridging joists between 3.5 to 7.5 meters. Triple joist floors are strongest, incorporating girders to support binders for spans over 7.5 meters.
This document provides an overview of rammed earth construction. It acknowledges those who helped with the project and defines its objectives. The executive summary outlines that the document will explain the technique of rammed earth construction, discuss its properties and composition, and analyze rammed earth structures around the world. The document contains sections on the history of rammed earth, different earth construction methods, the composition and properties of rammed earth, improving rammed earth with additives, codes and legislation, and environmental impacts.
Stones dressing as a Building material and constructionNaresh Kumar
Stone found in nature, have to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large pieces of rocks, it is essential to break them into smaller sizes so that they can be used in buildings.
A place where exposed surfaces of good quality natural rocks are abundantly available is known as “quarry,” and the process of taking out stones from the natural bed is known as “quarrying.”
This is done with the help of hand tools like a pickaxe, chisels, etc., or with the help of machines. Blasting using explosives is another method used in quarrying.
The dressing of stones is important so that they are dressed in suitable shapes and polished to give a smooth surface if desired.
Thermal insulation provides several key benefits for buildings located in tropical countries. It creates an insulated envelope that stops heat and cold from transferring into or out of the building. This maintains interior temperatures for longer periods and improves human comfort while reducing energy costs. The document discusses the necessity of insulation, design considerations, common application methods, and case studies. It also covers the Energy Conservation Building Code which determines minimum insulation thickness requirements. External insulation on roofs and walls is most effective at stopping heat at its source, while internal insulation provides faster cooling for individual rooms.
Rammed earth is a sustainable building technique that has been used for centuries. It involves compacting moist soil into formworks to create load-bearing walls. Rammed earth has advantages like being made from a renewable resource, providing good insulation, emitting no harmful gases, and having fire resistance. However, it also has disadvantages like being labor-intensive and time-consuming to construct.
The document discusses the compaction factor test for measuring the workability of concrete. The compaction factor test determines workability by measuring the compaction achieved when concrete falls freely from a hopper into a cylinder. A compaction factor of 0.75 to 0.8 is recommended, according to IS 456-2000 standards. The test involves partially filling a cylinder by simply allowing the concrete to fall in, then fully compacting it with a rod and calculating the ratio of the weights.
Super plasticizers are high range water reducing admixtures that can reduce the water content of concrete by 30% or more. They allow for production of highly workable, self-leveling, and self-compacting concrete while also increasing strength. Super plasticizers are chemically different than normal plasticizers and make it possible to use water-cement ratios as low as 0.25. They disperse cement particles better than normal plasticizers, producing more fluid concrete at lower water-cement ratios and strengths. Compatibility between super plasticizers and cement can vary, and field tests are needed to determine the optimum dosage.
The document discusses different types of flooring materials and their construction. It describes the key components of flooring as the sub-floor or base course, and floor covering. Common materials used include cement concrete, lime concrete, stones, bricks and wood. The selection of flooring depends on factors like initial cost, appearance, durability, damp and fire resistance. Specific flooring types discussed include mud, muram, brick, flagstone, cement concrete, terrazzo, mosaic and tile flooring.
The document discusses various earth-based building materials and techniques. It provides details on analyzing soil composition through various tests. Mud construction materials like cob, rammed earth, adobe, and stabilized mud bricks are explained. Cob involves shaping mud into egg-shaped masses and stacking them without forms. Rammed earth uses a form to compress damp soil mixtures into solid walls. Adobe involves shaping soil-straw mixtures into bricks that are sun-dried. Indigenous stabilizers like straw and plant juices can be used to improve soil properties for construction.
Sri Lanka; Rain Water Harvesting for Urban Buildings in Sri LankaV9X
1) Increasing urbanization in Sri Lanka has strained conventional water supplies, making alternatives like rainwater harvesting important.
2) Case studies show rainwater harvesting can provide 30-60% of non-drinking water needs for urban households and industries, significantly reducing water bills.
3) Sri Lanka's 2005 National Rainwater Harvesting Policy aims to incorporate harvesting in new construction and make it mandatory in urban areas over time to boost supplies and conserve treated water.
Sri Lanka; Rainwater Harvesting for Home Gardens in Dry Zone of Sri LankaV9X
The document summarizes a study on using low-cost rainwater harvesting tanks to improve incomes for households in Sri Lanka's dry zone. Nine farmers built 5m3 ferrocement tanks to collect surface runoff. They tested three cropping patterns: single crops between contours, mixed crops on contours, and N-fixing trees on contours. Results showed no difference in water collected or income increase between patterns. However, incomes doubled in Maha season compared to before. Most importantly, water availability allowed cultivation in the Yala season for the first time. Farmers' incomes increased and they used excess water for other purposes like brick making.
Its all about the new environment friendly bricks that are now in more demand as compared to clay bricks. So how its useful and what it contains is explained here.
Cement mortar is a mixture used for masonry construction, such as between bricks. It binds the materials together and provides strength, stability, and durability to building structures. There are different types of mortars including lime, cement, surkhi, and mud mortars. Mortar hardens when it sets, forming an aggregate structure. Concrete is similar but contains coarse aggregates like gravel or stone, in addition to the binding materials, sand, and water. The document discusses the ingredients, mixing, curing, and testing of concrete, including its compressive strength and workability. Aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture and affect its properties.
Reinforced concrete lintels are now widely used as they are fireproof, durable, strong, economical and easy to construct. RCC lintels can be used for varying spans and load conditions without needing relieving arches. They are preferred over other lintel materials like wood, stone and brick due to disadvantages like decay, difficulty obtaining long stones, and weakness in tension. RCC lintels can be precast or cast-in-situ, with precast used for smaller spans up to 2 meters typically. Depth and reinforcement size depends on the span and load, with larger diameters like 12mm rebar used for spans over 3 meters.
Shotcrete is a concrete or mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a backing surface. It was invented in the early 1900s and has emerged as the preferred industry term to describe pneumatically applied concrete. There are two main processes - dry mix and wet mix. Dry mix involves pre-blended dry or semi-damp materials conveyed via air to the nozzle, while wet mix fully mixes all ingredients before projection. Shotcrete provides benefits over conventional concrete like density, homogeneity, strength, and ability to apply to any surface. It is widely used for rehabilitation of subway tunnels, domed roofs, highway culvert repair, and new concrete construction.
Bricks are building materials made from fired clay blocks used in masonry construction. They come in standard sizes like 230mm x 115mm x 75mm. Bricks have advantages like strength, durability, thermal performance, design flexibility, and fire resistance. The manufacturing process involves preparing clay soil, moulding bricks by hand or machine, drying for 7-14 days, and burning in clamps or kilns to harden the bricks.
This document provides details for estimating the quantities of concrete needed for various types of footings, including:
1. Single, stepped, sloped, and circular footings. Dimensions and quantities are given for each type.
2. A measurement sheet is included that outlines the work description, unit numbers, dimensions, and calculated quantities for each footing type. Dimensions provided include length, width, height/depth.
3. Formulas are shown for calculating volumes of concrete for the different footing configurations, such as rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular shapes.
This document provides information about the details of a construction materials course taught by Ms. Urmi Devi and Mr. Wahid Hasan. It lists the course name as "Details of Construction" and course number as CE 200. It then provides lists of student IDs and names enrolled in the course. The document continues by describing various types of cement and their constituents and properties. It also discusses aggregates like sand and stone chips used in concrete. Reinforcement bars or rebar sizes and grades are outlined. Finally, it briefly mentions other construction materials like structural wood, bamboo, bricks, concrete, mortar and admixtures.
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or dressed and then finished for building purposes, is called “Stone” and the art of building the structure with stones as constructional units is called “Stone Masonry”.
nry
Types of Rubble Masonry
Random Rubble Masonry
Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry
BUILT TO COURSES RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY
SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
UNCOURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
BUILT TO COURSES SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
REGULAR COURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
DRY RUBBLE MASONRY
ASHLAR MASONRY
ASHLER FINE / COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
RANDOM COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
ROUGH TOOLED ASHLER MASONRY
QUARRY FACED ASHLAR MASONRY
CHAMFERED ASHLAR MASONRY
ASHLAR FACING
rough ashlar stone masonic rough ashlarrough and pe
Ferrocement is a thin cement composite material reinforced with closely spaced layers of wire mesh. It consists of a cement mortar matrix reinforced with small diameter wire mesh. The mortar provides mass while the wire mesh provides tensile strength and ductility. Ferrocement can be constructed using a variety of techniques and has applications in marine structures, water and sanitation infrastructure, agriculture, housing and rural energy due to advantages like strength, ductility, impact resistance and impermeability.
The document describes different types of upper floors based on construction materials. It focuses on timber floors, which are classified as single joist, double joist, or triple joist/framed floors depending on their strength and span. Single joist floors are the simplest with spans up to 4 meters. Double joist floors are stronger, using binders for intermediate support of bridging joists between 3.5 to 7.5 meters. Triple joist floors are strongest, incorporating girders to support binders for spans over 7.5 meters.
This document provides an overview of rammed earth construction. It acknowledges those who helped with the project and defines its objectives. The executive summary outlines that the document will explain the technique of rammed earth construction, discuss its properties and composition, and analyze rammed earth structures around the world. The document contains sections on the history of rammed earth, different earth construction methods, the composition and properties of rammed earth, improving rammed earth with additives, codes and legislation, and environmental impacts.
Stones dressing as a Building material and constructionNaresh Kumar
Stone found in nature, have to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large pieces of rocks, it is essential to break them into smaller sizes so that they can be used in buildings.
A place where exposed surfaces of good quality natural rocks are abundantly available is known as “quarry,” and the process of taking out stones from the natural bed is known as “quarrying.”
This is done with the help of hand tools like a pickaxe, chisels, etc., or with the help of machines. Blasting using explosives is another method used in quarrying.
The dressing of stones is important so that they are dressed in suitable shapes and polished to give a smooth surface if desired.
Thermal insulation provides several key benefits for buildings located in tropical countries. It creates an insulated envelope that stops heat and cold from transferring into or out of the building. This maintains interior temperatures for longer periods and improves human comfort while reducing energy costs. The document discusses the necessity of insulation, design considerations, common application methods, and case studies. It also covers the Energy Conservation Building Code which determines minimum insulation thickness requirements. External insulation on roofs and walls is most effective at stopping heat at its source, while internal insulation provides faster cooling for individual rooms.
Rammed earth is a sustainable building technique that has been used for centuries. It involves compacting moist soil into formworks to create load-bearing walls. Rammed earth has advantages like being made from a renewable resource, providing good insulation, emitting no harmful gases, and having fire resistance. However, it also has disadvantages like being labor-intensive and time-consuming to construct.
The document discusses the compaction factor test for measuring the workability of concrete. The compaction factor test determines workability by measuring the compaction achieved when concrete falls freely from a hopper into a cylinder. A compaction factor of 0.75 to 0.8 is recommended, according to IS 456-2000 standards. The test involves partially filling a cylinder by simply allowing the concrete to fall in, then fully compacting it with a rod and calculating the ratio of the weights.
Super plasticizers are high range water reducing admixtures that can reduce the water content of concrete by 30% or more. They allow for production of highly workable, self-leveling, and self-compacting concrete while also increasing strength. Super plasticizers are chemically different than normal plasticizers and make it possible to use water-cement ratios as low as 0.25. They disperse cement particles better than normal plasticizers, producing more fluid concrete at lower water-cement ratios and strengths. Compatibility between super plasticizers and cement can vary, and field tests are needed to determine the optimum dosage.
The document discusses different types of flooring materials and their construction. It describes the key components of flooring as the sub-floor or base course, and floor covering. Common materials used include cement concrete, lime concrete, stones, bricks and wood. The selection of flooring depends on factors like initial cost, appearance, durability, damp and fire resistance. Specific flooring types discussed include mud, muram, brick, flagstone, cement concrete, terrazzo, mosaic and tile flooring.
The document discusses various earth-based building materials and techniques. It provides details on analyzing soil composition through various tests. Mud construction materials like cob, rammed earth, adobe, and stabilized mud bricks are explained. Cob involves shaping mud into egg-shaped masses and stacking them without forms. Rammed earth uses a form to compress damp soil mixtures into solid walls. Adobe involves shaping soil-straw mixtures into bricks that are sun-dried. Indigenous stabilizers like straw and plant juices can be used to improve soil properties for construction.
Sri Lanka; Rain Water Harvesting for Urban Buildings in Sri LankaV9X
1) Increasing urbanization in Sri Lanka has strained conventional water supplies, making alternatives like rainwater harvesting important.
2) Case studies show rainwater harvesting can provide 30-60% of non-drinking water needs for urban households and industries, significantly reducing water bills.
3) Sri Lanka's 2005 National Rainwater Harvesting Policy aims to incorporate harvesting in new construction and make it mandatory in urban areas over time to boost supplies and conserve treated water.
Sri Lanka; Rainwater Harvesting for Home Gardens in Dry Zone of Sri LankaV9X
The document summarizes a study on using low-cost rainwater harvesting tanks to improve incomes for households in Sri Lanka's dry zone. Nine farmers built 5m3 ferrocement tanks to collect surface runoff. They tested three cropping patterns: single crops between contours, mixed crops on contours, and N-fixing trees on contours. Results showed no difference in water collected or income increase between patterns. However, incomes doubled in Maha season compared to before. Most importantly, water availability allowed cultivation in the Yala season for the first time. Farmers' incomes increased and they used excess water for other purposes like brick making.
Sri Lanka; Rainwater Harvesting In Sri Lanka: Lessons LearnedV9X
This document provides an overview of rainwater harvesting in Sri Lanka, including lessons learned over time. It discusses how rainwater harvesting has been implemented in Sri Lanka since 1995 through various projects, with over 15,000 systems currently existing. The technology and designs have improved, resulting in better water quality and more affordable systems. Key lessons include increasing tank sizes for drier areas, adding lids, filters, and flush systems to improve water quality, and promoting community involvement for stronger project outcomes.
The document provides design recommendations for improving grey water systems in San Miguel Suchixtepec, Mexico. It summarizes that the original systems installed in 38 homes are not being properly maintained, with only 8-10 still functioning after a year. The recommendations aim to create a more robust and easily maintained system using local materials. Key recommendations include:
1. Adding a colander or strainer to the sink to filter out large particles before grey water passes through the system.
2. Increasing the grease trap capacity to 90L to accommodate typical water usage flows, and adding flexible pipes and a baffle lid for easier cleaning and maintenance.
3. Replacing the current multi-media vertical filter with an
Sri Lanka; Impact of Rainfall Runoff Harvesting in Drought Prone AreasV9X
The study examined the impact of rainfall runoff harvesting in wells located in a drought-prone region of Sri Lanka. Eight wells were selected near structures like tanks, dug wells, and runoff collection tanks to capture rainfall runoff. Water levels were monitored daily in the structures and wells. Results showed rainfall runoff collection was effective at maintaining water levels in shallow wells during the dry season, allowing cultivation. Recharge from structures contributed more to shallow wells than deep wells. All wells except the deepest were maintained at a level suitable for small-scale farming. Rainfall runoff harvesting helped address water shortages and supported agricultural activities during drought periods.
Kenya; Water from Roofs: A Handbook For Technicians And BuildersV9X
This document provides guidance on constructing various types of water tanks for roof catchment systems. It discusses the history of water tanks in Africa and Asia. It then provides details on constructing different types of tanks, including those made from bricks, blocks, concrete, ferrocement, and plastic. Standard designs and bills of quantities are given for sample tanks ranging in size from 3 to 15 cubic meters. Guidance is also provided on selecting appropriate building materials, foundations, roofs, and other design considerations to ensure effective water collection and storage.
Sri Lanka; Quality of Collected Rainwater from Sri LankaV9X
This document summarizes a study on the quality of collected rainwater in Sri Lanka. It finds that rainwater generally meets WHO standards for chemical quality except for pH levels in some new tanks. However, bacteriological quality does not meet WHO standards except in one location where all tanks had filters. Fecal coliform counts were higher at the start of the rainy season and in tanks without filters. The study concludes that rainwater quality can meet standards if catchment roofs are clean, first flush devices and filters are used, and tanks are properly maintained to prevent breeding of mosquitoes.
Malaysia; Global Warming and Rain Water HarvestingV9X
1) Climate change and global warming have led to rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events like floods and droughts around the world according to the IPCC.
2) An estimated 700 million people currently live in water-stressed areas, and that number is projected to rise to over 3 billion by 2025 as populations grow and weather patterns change.
3) Rainwater harvesting techniques can help balance the water cycle, provide local water sources, and mitigate problems from extreme weather by retaining more rainfall on land through watershed management and rooftop collection systems.
Water resources are sources of water that are useful for human uses like agriculture, industry, households, recreation and the environment. Only 3% of water on Earth is fresh water, with the majority found as groundwater or frozen in glaciers and ice caps. Water is a renewable resource, but groundwater depletion is occurring in many places around the world. Water is essential for agriculture, which accounts for about 70% of water usage globally. Managing water resources sustainably is important for reducing poverty, maintaining environmental health, and supporting economic development.
Water management in India: By Gita Kavaranabmbks321
The document discusses the growing global water crisis and India's water challenges. It notes that over 75% of the world's population now lives in areas with low water availability. In India, heavy use of surface and groundwater without recharging has led to falling water tables and pollution of water sources. Most proposed solutions involve large, costly infrastructure projects, but these are not sustainable. The document argues for an alternative approach of rainwater harvesting using traditional decentralized methods, which do not require huge investments and can meet water needs sustainably.
Resources of Soil And Water In India And AbroadNaveen Bind
This document discusses water resources in India, including its geographical distribution, sectoral utilization, and methods of conservation and management. It notes that India accounts for 16% of the world's population but only 4% of global water resources. The total annual water availability is around 4,000 cubic km, of which only 60% can be utilized. Surface water from rivers and groundwater are the main sources of water. Major river basins and their annual surface water flows and storage capacities are presented. Efficient use and conservation of water resources is needed to ensure sustainable development.
Balinese Water Temples: A Case Study in Water ManagementJames King
A case study analyzing the Balinese 'Subak' system of water management, a traditional and holistic agricultural system emphasizing sustainability and preservation of natural cycles.
- The document discusses runoff farming as a way to reduce rural poverty in the Cholistan Desert of Pakistan.
- The Cholistan Desert has an arid climate with low and erratic rainfall, but traditional runoff farming techniques have harvested rainwater through structures like ponds and ditches.
- Runoff farming involves modifying landscapes to increase runoff from rainfall and conveying that water to storage structures for irrigation and other uses. These indigenous techniques have helped support agriculture and alleviate poverty in an area with little other water.
The document discusses various methods of water storage used in India to deal with droughts and water scarcity. It describes traditional techniques like jhalars, talabs, bawaris, taankas, ahar pynes, and johads that have been used for centuries to harvest rainwater and store it for use during dry periods. It also discusses dams, reservoirs, and rainwater harvesting as modern methods of water storage and conservation. The document emphasizes the importance of conserving water given the increasing water demands and impacts of climate change.
Drainage and Irrigation Principle Ch-1.pptxgemadogelgalu
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land to aid in growing crops. Early civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and India developed irrigation around 4000-2500 BCE to support permanent settlements and increase crop yields. Irrigation expanded significantly in the 19th-20th centuries and now over 800 million acres worldwide are irrigated, with China, India, USA, Pakistan, and Iran leading. Irrigation is needed where rainfall is inadequate or inconsistent to meet crop water demands. Benefits include higher and more reliable yields, while disadvantages can include waterlogging, salinity, and disease if not properly implemented.
India; Rain Water Harvesting, Conservation and Management Strategies for Urb...D5Z
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management was held in Nagpur, India on 11-12 November 2006.
1. Rainwater harvesting, conservation and management strategies are important for both urban and rural areas due to increasing water demand and declining water resources. Rainwater harvesting techniques have been used for thousands of years around the world and in India, though modern technology has improved methods.
2. There is an urgent need for rainwater harvesting in India due to uneven rainfall distribution, increasing population and water demand, depleting groundwater, and occasional droughts and floods. Rainwater harvesting can help meet irrigation, drinking and other water needs in both rural and urban areas.
3. Various rainwater
1. Rainwater harvesting techniques have been practiced for thousands of years around the world, but research on the topic is more recent. Runoff farming and collecting rainfall in reservoirs was used by ancient civilizations.
2. Modern techniques use materials like asphalt and plastic to more efficiently collect and store rainwater for irrigation and drinking water. Research in the mid-20th century improved methods for increasing runoff and capturing it.
3. There is a growing need for rainwater harvesting in India as demand for water is increasing while availability is decreasing due to groundwater depletion and irregular monsoons. Collecting rainwater could help meet rising agricultural, industrial, and domestic water needs.
FINAL PPT (HYDROLOGY) WATER HARVESTING.pptxKRIPABHARDWAJ1
The document discusses water harvesting techniques. It describes short term runoff harvesting techniques like contour bunds, semicircular hoops, and trapezoidal bunds which involve constructing earthen structures to collect and store surface runoff. Long term techniques include dugout ponds, silt detention dams, and percolation dams for underground storage. The document also covers benefits like increased production and income, as well as constraints like reliance on rainfall variability and potential negative environmental impacts.
The document discusses water resource engineering and hydrology. It covers topics like the hydrological cycle, watershed development objectives and components, water requirements and conservation, and sources of water. Specifically, it describes the hydrological cycle involving evaporation, condensation, precipitation, surface runoff, and underground water. It also outlines objectives of watershed development like improving water retention and controlling soil erosion. Sources of water discussed include surface sources like lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, as well as groundwater sources.
Wetlands provide many benefits. They act as natural sponges that help control flooding by absorbing and slowly releasing water. They also filter and purify surface water. Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide food and refuge for wildlife. They have economic value through activities like fishing, hunting, and recreation. Mangroves in particular can help buffer against storms and tsunamis as demonstrated in one Indian village.
Irrigation involves supplying water to crops through artificial means. It allows for stable food production in arid and semi-arid regions by offsetting drought. One-third of the world's food comes from irrigated lands, which make up 21% of cultivated area. Early civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India developed irrigation to support settlements. Irrigation expanded in the 19th century and took off in the 20th century, with global irrigated area growing from 20 million acres to over 800 million acres currently. Modern irrigation systems allow for improved water management but also carry environmental risks like waterlogging, salinization, and impacts on water resources if not properly managed.
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This document discusses water scarcity in Iran and proposes solutions. It notes that Iran receives around 439 billion cubic meters of annual precipitation but overextracts groundwater, extracting 60 billion cubic meters per year while the sustainable yield is estimated at 51 billion cubic meters. Around 95% of available water is used for agriculture. The document argues that improving water use efficiency in agriculture, reclaiming degraded lands, and adopting drought-tolerant crops can help address water scarcity issues without jeopardizing food production. It also discusses the historical role of nomadic pastoralism in sustainably managing rangelands and argues that policies banning nomadism have degraded lands and reduced livestock numbers.
This document discusses water scarcity in Iran and proposes solutions. It notes that Iran receives around 439 billion cubic meters of annual precipitation but extracts 60 billion cubic meters from aquifers, exceeding sustainable levels. To address this, the document advocates improving agricultural water use efficiency, reclaiming degraded lands, and supporting nomadic pastoralism, which is environmentally sustainable but has been in decline due to policies promoting settlement. The key challenges are increasing farm productivity while using less water and improving energy services at low cost and risk.
India has enough water but lacks water management.docxS K SHUKLA
India has abundant water resources but lacks proper water management. While India receives over 4000 cubic km of rainfall annually, only 6% is stored and India faces increasing water stress due to factors like unsustainable groundwater usage, poor irrigation practices, lack of water storage, and pollution of existing water sources from agricultural, industrial, and domestic waste. Improving water management through measures like drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, inter-linking rivers, restoring wetlands and watersheds, and sustainable groundwater usage is needed to address India's growing water challenges.
This document discusses wetlands, including their characteristics and importance. It notes that wetlands are diverse ecosystems that are flooded by water and serve as home to much plant and animal life. The main types of wetlands are listed as swamp, marsh, bog and fen. Wetlands provide important functions such as water storage and flood protection, water purification, biodiversity habitat, and climate change mitigation. The Ramsar Convention aims to conserve and sustainably use wetlands internationally through cooperation of member countries. Pakistan has designated 19 wetland sites as being of international importance under this convention.
Running head: LAKE CHAD CASESTUDY 1
LAKE CHAD CASESTUDY 4
Lake Chad Casestudy
Name:
Institution:
Lake Chad Casestudy
Lake Chad is one of Africa’s fresh water bodies. This water resource is shared by Chad,Nigeria,Niger and Cameroon. This important ecosystem has been experiencing degradation because of natural factors and human activities. This research focuses on the role of human factors in the degradation and the management plans that have been put in place to manage the resource.The unfortunate situation at the lake has been called an ecological catastrophe by the Food and Agricultural Organization, FAO. Some of the human factors that have contributed towards the degradation include damming and irrigation. These two human activities have contributed to the shrinkage of the lake. The growing number of irrigation projects have diverted water sources from the lake, hence the massive degradation. A series of dams constructed across rivers in Nigeria and Chad have also affected the lake because they have interruption the natural flow of water that originally drained in Lake Chad (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
Livestock staging, and overgrazing, has been witnessed in the surrounding areas. There is a lot of competition for greener pastures in the area. It is this competition for resources from the surrounding herders (e.g. to keep them fed and healthy) and current occupants struggling to keep their livelihood alive, that has made the lake vulnerable to further degradation. Human factors have indirectly contributed to drastic climatic changes that have resulted in droughts and high rates of evaporation at the lake (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
The increasing human population has put pressure on this natural resource. The growing population has contributed to unsustainable exploitation and pollution of the Lake. Over 30 million people live within the water catchment area around lake Chad (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012). With this size population, the water resource is being thwarted into extinction if conservation measures are not implemented. The population has also resorted to intensive fishing in the lake for survival. This overfishing is a major threat to the ecological biodiversity within Lake Chad itself Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
Ecological Principles Ignored In The Degradation
Disturbance Principle
According to the disturbance ecological principle, the extent and type of disturbance, determines the characteristics of the ecosystem. In the case of lake Chad, human activities were carried out in total disregard of the potential effects they had on the ecosystem. The population around the lake, exploited resources and disturbed the water balance in the area, therefore furthering the rate of the lake’s deterioration.
The landscape ecological principle was also ignored. The human activitie.
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Sri Lanka; Domestic Rainwater Harvesting as a Water Supply Option in Sri LankaV9X
This document summarizes domestic rainwater harvesting in Sri Lanka. It discusses that rainwater harvesting has been promoted in Sri Lanka since 1995 through various projects and organizations. Currently over 31,000 domestic rainwater systems have been established. Rainwater harvesting was successfully legalized through national policy and legislation. The quality of harvested rainwater generally meets WHO standards and has been used for both drinking and non-drinking purposes. Rainwater harvesting provides social benefits like time savings and improved water access. It remains an important supplemental water source for rural communities.
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5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
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Power Grid Model
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Overview
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Key Topics Covered
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5. Introduction to Apache Kafka and S3
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12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
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During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
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Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slackshyamraj55
Discover the seamless integration of RPA (Robotic Process Automation), COMPOSER, and APM with AWS IDP enhanced with Slack notifications. Explore how these technologies converge to streamline workflows, optimize performance, and ensure secure access, all while leveraging the power of AWS IDP and real-time communication via Slack notifications.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
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- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
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HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAU
South Africa Water Harvesting: An Overview
1. Water Harvesting: An Overview
By Robert Rutherford
Introduction
A method of water collection that has, historically, been “applied in arid and semi-
arid regions where rainfall is either not sufficient to sustain a good crop and pasture
growth or where, due to the erratic nature of precipitation, the risk of crop failure is
very high,” (Prinz, 1996, pg. 1) water harvesting is now being employed all over the
world. As new developments have been made, more and more regions are employing
water harvesting to help offset pressures on existing water resources. This resurgence
in popularity comes on the crest of a new wave of environmentalism and drive
towards sustainable development where the focus is on renewable sources of water
collection. Water harvesting (WH) is aimed at reducing the pressure that development
and the consequences thereof has placed on what is now being reconsidered as a
limited resource, our water.
WH has been defined as the collection of runoff for its productive use (Critchley and
Siegert, 1991), yet this initial definition is too general and has been more accurately
defined as the process of collecting and concentrating water from runoff into a run-on
area where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping area and
stored in the soil profile for immediate use by the crop (Prinz and Singh. 2000). As
such, WH has been employed for thousands of years to irrigate and restore
productivity to the land, provide drinking water (to both humans and animals),
minimize risk in drought prone areas, increase groundwater recharge, and reduces
storm water discharges (Rainwater Harvesting, 2006). Today, WH is used for crop
irrigation, groundwater recharge and water storage for future use in drought prone
areas.
Water plays the most crucial role in our everyday lives, water is needed for basic
human needs, such as drinking, cooking, sanitation and hygiene, productive activities,
for example agriculture, commercial activities and services, and various other uses,
like religious ceremonies, environmental enhancement and aesthetic values (Mokgope
and Butterworth, 2001). It is for these reasons among others that water harvesting has
been practiced for centuries. “Many peoples in the world have continued to rely on
water harvesting practices. Others have returned to it in order to relieve pressure on
1
2. overburdened underground water tables or municipal water systems” (Palmback,
2004).
The purpose of this working paper is four fold; first to provide a historical context for
WH, looking at ancient technologies and the societies that employed these ingenious
techniques to ensure their survival in often harsh environments. The second, outlines
the external factors that need to be considered when implementing WH systems and
the third aims to define and outline the three principle WH techniques and provides
examples of each. Finally this paper examines WH as it is understood today and
profiles various non-governmental organizations that have employed WH techniques
with a critical analysis on their development strategies and their work.
History of Water Harvesting:
For almost as long as humans have engaged in agriculture, they have engaged in
water harvesting. The act of harvesting rainwater, floodwaters and groundwater has
been in practice for thousands of years, from the most rudimentary techniques to
large, complex methods such as the roman aqueducts. For many cultures, water
harvesting (WH) was an effective way to meet their water needs in a time when no
other alternatives were available to them. This was mainly due to the fact that
alternative sources of drinking water and water for agricultural purposes were not
readily available.
Historically, many settlements have been situated in arid and semi-arid climates, such
as the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. These cultures were largely
dependent on subsistence farming and there were few other opportunities to generate
income. WH became widespread in many of these regions and although various
methods were devised almost universally, each emerging culture established their
own unique way of collecting or diverting runoff for productive purposes (Prinz,
1996).
The Middle East
The Middle East was one of the first regions in the world to practice harvesting water
for consumption in both domestic and agricultural realms. WH structures found in this
2
3. part of the world date back over 9,000 years, to Southern Mesopotamia where simple
WH structures were used as early as 4,500BC (Prinz, 1996).
In the Negev Desert region, now modern day Israel, runoff irrigation farming has
been in practice since the 10th century BC. This form of WH was used throughout
Roman rule and well into the Byzantine era (Ibid.). “In North Yemen, a system dating
back to at least 1,000 B.C. diverted enough floodwater to irrigate 20,000 hectares
(50,000 acres) producing agricultural products that may have fed as many as 300,000
people” (Ibid., pg. 11). This method of floodwater management is still in use today,
making this region one of the few places where runoff agriculture has been
continuously practiced since the earliest settlement (Ibid., Pg. 11). Similarly,
floodwater systems have also been used in the regions of modern day Pakistan and
Saudi Arabia, both varying the design and process to meet the needs of their climate
and terrain.
Africa
Africa, Northern Africa in particular, has a long history of WH, where the technique
was often devised to match the terrain of each region. Historically known as the
granary of the Roman Empire, in Libya, runoff irrigation was often used as a way to
grow barley, wheat, olive oil, grapes, figs and dates in this arid region of the
continent. As well, this form of water harvesting also allowed for sheep, pigs and
cattle farming (Prinz, 1996). “The farming system lasted for over 400 years and
sustained a large stationary population, often wealthy, which created enough crops to
generate a surplus” (Ibid., pg. 12).
Many of the other WH methods employed in this region are still used today and
include; rainwater storage ponds called “lacs collinaires1” in Algeria, the Meskan2 and
Mgouds3 harvesting systems in Tunisia, the Caag4 and Gawan5 systems in Somalia
and finally the Zay6 system in Burkina Faso.
1
Ponds traditionally used for agricultural purposes as well as for watering livestock and other domestic
animals (Prinz, 1996).
2
The"Meskat" microcatchment system consists of an impluvium called a "meskat", of about 500 m2 in
size, and a cropping area of about 250 m2. Both are surrounded by a 20cm high bund, equipped with
spillways to let runoff flow into the cropping area plots” (Ibid.).
3
Mgouds are a system of channels used to divert flood water from a stream bed to agricultural fields
(Ibid.).
3
4. To the east, in Tanzania, water harvesting has been a mainstay with rural farmers
using rainwater harvesting to irrigate their crops for centuries. “People who rely
completely on rainwater for their survival have over the centuries developed
indigenous techniques to harvest rainwater” (Mbilinyi et al., 2005, pg. 1). These
indigenous methods include the Majaluba, excavated bunded basins used for rice
production in the lake zone, Vinyungu, raised broad basins in the Iringa region, and
the Ndira, which are water storage structures in the Kilimanjaro region (Mbilinyi et
al., 2005). As well as these physical structures, the concept of “mashamba ya mbuga”
has been used to describe the use of rainwater harvesting to grow water intensive
crops by making use of rainwater from the surrounding highlands (Ibid.). “These
traditional rainwater-harvesting systems have been perfectly sustainable for many
years as they are compatible with local lifestyles, local institutional patterns and local
social systems” (Ibid., pg. 2).
Western Asia
In Asia, many communities have emerged and thrived in harsh arid regions, where
their social life has evolved around waster scarcity and indigenous water harvesting
techniques. India is one such nation where the ordering of certain social groups has
been arranged around water scarcity.
In India the national annual average rainfall comes to 120cm, yet the regional
variations of this average can be as high as 1000cm per year in the north east and as
low as 15cm per year in the desert regions (Krishiworld, 2006). In the cool arid region
of the Spiti valley situated in the northern province of Himachal Pradesh, an intricate
systems of channels called Kuls have been devised to harvest melt water from
glaciers. This water is then delivered to the local village(s) in the valley where the
harvested water is used for irrigation purposes, turning this desert-like valley into one
where agriculture is the mainstay (Rainwater Harvesting, 2002).
4
Uses diversion channels to redirect small water courses, gullies or roadside drains into the cropping
area through the use of earth bunds (Ibid. pg. 14).
5
“The Gawan system is used where the land is almost flat and where is less runoff. Small bunds are
made which divide plots into "grids" of basins” (Ibid. pg. 15).
6
“Is a form of pitting which consists of digging holes that have a depth of 5 - 15 cm and a diameter of
10 - 30 cm…Manure and grasses are mixed with some of the soil and…are applied in combination with
bunds to conserve runoff” (Ibid., pg 15).
4
5. The Kul begins at the glacier head, in the nearby mountains, where the water is
“tapped.” The water then travels into a circular tank where the water is stored until it
is needed, allowing for the water flow to be regulated (Ibid.). “Water from the Kul is
collected through the night and released into the exit channel in the morning. By
evening the tank is practically empty and the exit is closed. This cycle is repeated
daily” (Ibid.). This water harvesting system is specific to the Spiti region and an
interesting method of water sharing has arisen to equitably distribute the limited
hydrological resources.
In order to prevent the fragmentation of land holdings, Spiti inheritance laws specify
that the eldest son will not only inherit all the landholdings, but the farm implements,
the family house and the family's water rights as well (Ibid.). The water rights are
controlled by the “Bada Ghars” (big houses) in the community and other families are
required to purchase water from the Bada Ghars or provide free labour in exchange.
To this day the Bada Ghars have first claim to the stored water for which they use to
irrigate their fields, the remaining water is then dispersed down through hierarchal
order to each family farm. A system of crop rotation has emerged as a result with the
Bada Ghars growing and harvesting their crops at the beginning of the season with
other houses doing so later in the year. In this way, the limited labour supply is also
shared equitably to ensure a successful harvest among all houses (Ibid.). Today this
system is threatened by the Union government which is attempting to implement
change in hopes of “modernizing” the Spiti valley. “The Union government has
slowly made its presence felt in the Spiti valley as a modernising agent, whose actions
are profoundly changing traditional production practises and social patterns” (Ibid.)
Other historical forms of water harvesting techniques from India include Kunds of the
Thar Desert and the bamboo irrigation method. Kunds are a local name given to a
covered, underground tank that was designed to store drinking water. Found mainly in
the western regions of Rajasthan, the first known Kund was built in 1607AD by Raja
Sursingh in the village of Vadi-ka-melan (Ibid.). The Kund has a saucer-shaped
catchment area with a gentle slope towards a tank in the centre. The opening of the
tank is blocked by mesh to prevent debris from contaminating the water. Kunds are
5
6. generally circular in shape and have a depth between 3 – 4.5m and are constructed
using local materials such as lime plaster or cement (Ibid.).
In the province of Meghalaya, systems of bamboo pipes have been in use for over 200
years as a way for local farmers in the Khasi and Jaintia hills to irrigate their crops.
This method of water harvesting has been perfected so that “about 18-20L of water
entering the bamboo pipe system per minute, gets transported over several hundred
meters and is reduced to 20-80 drops per minute” (Ibid.).
The Americas
Ancient WH techniques aren’t restricted solely to the old world. In the Americas,
structures left behind by the Mayan civilization indicate a long history of WH. The
Mayans used structures known as Chultuns, an early type of cistern which had the
capacity to hold 20 to 45 thousand litres, to harvest clean drinking water.
Furthermore, the Aguadas, an artificially dug rainwater reservoir designed to hold 10
to 150 million litres of water, and Aquaditas, small artificial reservoirs that could
store 100 to 50,000 litres of water, were commonplace (Gnadlinger, 2000).
Despite these historical accounts, water harvesting has, within the last few centuries,
experienced a decline in implementation and practice. This has been a result of
several factors including; the decline of central powers (e.g. of the Byzantine empire
in the Middle East) due to political shifts, warfare incl. civil war, economic changes,
e.g. in competitiveness on local or export markets, social changes, incl. availability of
cheap labour, aspirations or attitudes of the people involved in water harvesting,
climatic change (increasing aridity, change in precipitation regime), increasing
salinity, decreasing soil fertility (nutrient status) and soil erosion (wind and water
erosion) (Prinz, 1996).
Only in recent decades has this renewable water source made a resurgence in
popularity. This is mainly due to a number of factors such as improved technology,
increased demand for agricultural products, a shift in paradigm regarding
environmental protection and increased value placed on indigenous knowledge
regarding water harvesting (Mbilinyi et al., 2005).
6
7. Requirements for Water Harvesting:
“It is evident that there is enough freshwater available every year to fulfil the needs of
the present population of this planet. However, in certain regions and countries the
annual renewable supply of water is less than 500m cubed” (Qadir et al., 2007, pg. 3).
This need for WH, as mentioned above, arises from many factors such as low rainfall
and uneven distribution, high losses due to evaporation and runoff, and an increased
demand on water due to population growth. (Abu-Awwad and Shatanawi, 1997).
With a large portion of the human race living in arid to semi-arid regions of the globe,
it is necessary to look to WH to increase water access in these areas.
As WH becomes an important strategy to deal with water scarcity or water stress, it is
important to consider the factors that go into selecting the appropriate WH methods to
maximize hydrological returns. “It is tempting to assume that a system which works
in one area will also work in another, superficially similar, zone. However there may
be technical dissimilarities such as availability of stone or intensity of rainfall, and
distinct socio-economic differences” (Critchley and Siegert, 1997).
In Prinz and Singh’s article, “Technological Potential for Improvements of Water
Harvesting,” there are a number of critical factors that need to be taken into
consideration when selecting the appropriate WH method. These will be outlined
below:
Rainfall
WH depends on limited and uncertain rainfall, and thus understanding the dynamics
of precipitation within the environment can influence the method of WH that would
fit best in each context (Qadir et al., 2007).
Various factors which should be taken into account include:
1. The number of days in which the rain exceeds the threshold rainfall of the
catchment, on a weekly or monthly basis.
2. Probability and occurrence (in years) for the mean monthly rainfall.
3. Probability and reoccurrence for the minimum and maximum monthly rainfall.
4. Frequency distribution of storms of different specific intensities.
(Prinz and Singh, 2000).
7
8. Land Use or Vegetation Cover
Working to reduce erosion and redirect runoff into appropriate catchments can lead to
high labour inputs resulting from the necessity to keep the catchment area free from
vegetation, to ensure that it is as efficient as possible. The vegetation of the selected
area will heavily influence runoff, infiltration and retention levels and must be taken
into account prior to implementation, to reduce high labour costs in the future (Qadir
et al., 2007).
Maintenance of the catchment system must also be understood when selecting the size
of catchment. The system may be damaged during heavy rainstorms or require regular
maintenance which could prove problematic in the future (Ibid.).
Topography and Terrain Profile
Topography is an important aspect of WH as the slope of the terrain and gradient will
greatly impact the size and type of catchment area of the WH system (Prinz and
Singh, 2000).
Soil Type and Soil Depth
Soil type and depth helps judge the percolation and infiltration rates, potential for
runoff, and storage potential of water within the soil itself (Ibid.).
Hydrology and Water Resources
Hydrology monitors the available water sources that are involved in storage,
production and runoff of the WH system, which will aid in the informed selection of
the appropriate WH technique for the proposed site (Ibid.).
Socio-Economic and Infrastructure Conditions
There are several social, cultural and economic factors that are important to consider
when selecting the appropriate WH techniques.
People’s Priorities – Need to be taken into account when opting to introduce WH
methods to a specific area. WH aims to increase the availability of water resources for
productive use, and it is therefore important that the WH infrastructure meet the needs
of the individuals who are using it (Critchley and Siegert, 1997).
8
9. Participation – When implementing projects surrounding WH, for example
development schemes implemented by governments or NGO’s, it is imperative that
the community, farmer or individual be involved in the process from beginning to
end. This helps create a sense of ownership of the project within the community.
Knowledge plays an important role here for individuals involved in the WH scheme
as they need to fully understand how it operates. One potential negative effect of
implementing complex WH technologies is that those who are left to use it are
unfamiliar with the technology and thus unable to properly maintain it (Oweis and
Hachum, 2005).
Adoption of Systems – Indicates the importance of selecting the appropriate WH
method for each site. “Widespread adoption of water harvesting techniques by the
local population is the only way that significant areas of land can be treated at a
reasonable cost on a sustainable basis.” (Critchley and Siegert, 1991).
Area Differences – It is not always possible to implement the same WH system in
different areas. This is due to subtle but important differences that exist between sites
that can cause a WH system to be a success in one region and a failure in another
(Ibid.).
Land Tenure – Not having full ownership of the land on which one lives can cause an
individual to be reluctant to invest in a WH scheme that would only benefit the user in
the short term (Ibid.).
Land Use Management - How land, both communal and private, is managed and used
can determine the effectiveness of the WH strategy being proposed or implemented.
Effective land management is important as conflicts and disputes over water rights,
land ownership and use can arise (Oweis and Hachum, 2005).
Environmental and Ecological Impacts
Ecosystems are often fragile and can be adversely affected if the water table is
tampered with. Thus it is important to pay attention to these factors, understanding
where the water flows and how it affects the surrounding ecology, before
implementing any kind of water harvesting system. Some negative impacts that water
9
10. harvesting can potentially have on the existing environment are the reduction of
valuable cropland that would be occupied by the catchment area. The catchment often
requires a large area and thus occupies valuable crop land (Qadir et al., 2007).
However, today the technology exists to allow for WH to occur on a larger scale,
allowing for various commercial uses such as plant nurseries, garden centres, vehicle
washing plants, agricultural uses and for use in washrooms and urinal flushing in
public buildings (Rainharvesting Systems, 2006).
Forms of Water Harvesting
There are three main categories of WH that have been devised and perfected over the
years. Each category has its own subset of methods and techniques that are employed
to get the maximum amount of profit from each water source, be it floodwater,
rainfall or groundwater. The three main forms of WH include Rainwater Harvesting
(RWH), Floodwater Harvesting (FWH) and Groundwater Harvesting (GWH).
Rainwater Harvesting
“Rainwater Harvesting uses a wide range of techniques for concentrating, collecting
and storing rainwater and surface runoff for different uses by linking a runoff-
producing area with a separate runoff-receiving area” (Mbilinyi et al., 2005, pg. 2). In
this sense, RWH collects rainwater runoff and stores it for future use, be it for
agricultural, domestic or drinking purposes. As such, RWH encompasses all WH
techniques that collect and harvest runoff from roofs or ground surfaces (Critchley
and Siegert, 1991).The three main forms of water collection that make up RWH are
water collection, rooftop harvesting and micro-catchments.
Water Collection – Also known as water conservation, this method of RWH is
essentially the prevention of net runoff from a given area by retaining rainwater and
prolonging the time for infiltration (Mbilinyi et al., 2005). This practice employs a
number of different techniques to “catch the water where it falls” (Ibid., pg. 2). The
methods for this form of RWH are diverse and are often a product of local ingenuity
and varying cultural practices. Examples of water collection include deep tillage, dry
seeding, mixed cropping, ridges, borders, terraces, trash lines, ponds, fog harvesting
and finally rooftop harvesting (Prinz, 1996). For the most part, these practices are
mainly used for irrigation.
10
11. Rooftop Harvesting – Is generally practiced as a way to obtain relatively clean
drinking water as well as water for domestic purposes. This method involves a
relatively small catchment area, the size of the individual’s roof of their house, with
gutters and pipes to guide the water into a tank on the ground. Often a tap is attached
to the tank for individuals to access this water (Mbilinyi et al., 2005). There is
concern over whether or not the water is clean enough for drinking, as pollutants in
the atmosphere have been known to be present in rainfall. “Today water harvesters
must be wary of pesticide contamination, high mineral levels, bacteria and other
impurities in their runoff water” (Palmback, 2004). Most rooftop harvesting systems
have screens and purification systems built into the infrastructure to remove leaves
and twigs from the water as well as to purify the water prior to use (Ibid.).
In Zambia, there is a growing focus on looking to other sources of safe, clean drinking
water in many of the rapidly expanding urban centres. In Lusaka, for example, the
city is experiencing large deficits in water access, reaching levels of almost double the
actual supply. (Handia et al., 2003). A study, conducted in Lusaka, by Handia et al.,
looked at the potential of rooftop water harvesting systems as alternative sources of
safe drinking water. In the capital city of Lusaka, the annual rainfall exceeded 306
million cubic meters in 1999, drastically surpassing the 73 million cubic meters of
piped water that was used by the city’s residents. This excess water has, until recently
been considered waste water, The purpose of this study was to investigate appropriate
WH systems that would be successful in reclaiming this lost water and fit within a
Zambian context. A series of pilot projects were set up at various locations within two
urban communities, Chazanga and Linda. The project consisted of rooftop water
harvesting systems fitted with a guttering system to harvest the water into tanks where
it was stored until needed for use. The conclusions drawn from this study surmised
that water harvesting systems have great potential within Zambia and that the
proposed rooftop water harvesting system can potentially be used as a source of
drinking water, yet recommended further research into the matter as the pilot test was
small and could not be applied to the country as a whole (Ibid.).
Micro-Catchment – Involves a distinct division of a runoff-generating catchment area,
and a cultivated basin where runoff is concentrated and stored in the root zone and
productively used by plants (Mbilinyi et al., 2005 pg. 2). There are multiple
11
12. advantages to this WH system than the others in that the design is simple and cheap,
there is a higher runoff efficiency than larger scale WH systems, they often prevent or
reduce erosion and, finally, can be implemented on almost any slope and many level
planes (Prinz, 1996).
Micro-catchments vary in size, method and technique from region to region. A micro-
catchment system in Ethiopia, for example, may be completely different in style and
operation than a micro-catchment system found in Western Asia. Although there are
variations, there is a basis of methods used within the micro-catchment category, they
include; pitting, contour ridges, negarin, semi-circular hoops, meskat-type, vallerani-
type, contour bench terraces, and eye brow terraces or hill slope micro-catchments
(Ibid.).
Floodwater Harvesting
Often referred to as water spreading or spate irrigation, FWH is involved in the
collection and storage of creek flow for irrigation use (Prinz and Singh, 2000, pg 3).
The main characteristics of FWH are a turbulent channel of water flow harvested
either by diversion or spreading within a channel bed/valley floor where the runoff is
stored in soil profile (Critchley and Siegert, 1991). Two categories in FWH include
Macro-Catchments and Large Catchments.
Macro-Catchments – Macro-catchments, sometimes called medium-sized catchments,
are characterized by large flood zones that are situated outside of the cropping area.
Often farmers must use structures such as dams or bunds to divert, transfer, collect
and store the runoff. Such systems are often difficult to differentiate from
conventional irrigation systems and are considered FWH as long as the harvested
water is available year round. (Mbilinyi et al., 2005). Examples of macro-catchments
include the following; stone dams, large semi-circular hoops, trapezoidal bunds,
hillside conduit systems, and cultivated reservoirs, all of which have a scale of
between 1,000m squared to 200 ha (Prinz, 1996).
Large Catchments Water Harvesting – Comprises systems with catchments many
square kilometres in size, from which runoff water flows through a large stream bed
(also known as a Wadi) necessitating more complex structures of dams and
12
13. distribution networks. There are two major forms of large catchments water
harvesting outlined in the literature, floodwater harvesting within a streambed and
floodwater diversion (Ibid., pg. 8).
Floodwater Harvesting within a Streambed involves blocking the water flow to flood
the valley of an entire flood plane and force the water to infiltrate the ground and use
the wetted area for crop production or pasture improvement (Ibid., pg. 8). Floodwater
Diversion is a method in which water in a river, stream (wadi) or creek bed is diverted
from its natural course and used to flood nearby cropping areas as an irrigation
method (Ibid., pg. 8).
Examples of each can be illustrated by looking at the Nabataen and Jessour systems of
water harvesting respectively. The Nabataen system diverts the water from a large
wadi (stream flow) in a valley by the use of a dam. This diverts the water into a
cropping area situated further away from the fertile banks of the stream. The Jessour
system “is a terraced wadi system with earth dikes (“tabia”) which are often
reinforced by dry stone walls (“sirra”). The sediments accumulating behind the dikes
are used for cropping in the lateral/central spillway.” (Ibid., pg. 13).
Groundwater Harvesting
GRH encompasses all methods, traditional and contemporary, of harvesting water
from the ground for productive use. It has also been used as a storage method for the
other forms of water harvesting outlined above, with many of these techniques
requiring a certain type of terrain so that the water diverted from its original source
can seep into the ground for crop use. Traditional methods of groundwater harvesting
include the use of dams, wells, cisterns and aquifers.
Dams – Groundwater harvesting dams pertain to the blockage of groundwater sources
for the use in agricultural practices. The subsurface dam and the sand storage dam are
used to “obstruct the flow of ephemeral streams in a river bed. The water is stored in
the sediment below ground surface and can be used for aquifer recharge” (Prinz and
Singh, 2000, pg. 3).
13
14. There are several advantages to this as evaporation losses are reduced, there is no
reduction in storage volume due to siltation, the stored water is less susceptible to
pollution, and health hazards due to mosquito breeding are avoided (Ibid., pg. 3).
Wells – Probably the most common of GWH techniques, they tap into the water table
from a hole excavated on the surface. Wells have been employed as a source of water
for thousands of years, with one of the oldest wells found dating back to 8100 – 7500
BC. Like other forms of water harvesting, wells have been adapted to meet the needs
of individuals living in specific regions. Technology has also increased the returns
from wells, making water easier to obtain.
Dug wells commonly used in Ethiopia, range from 3 to 15m deep and are major
sources of water for both agricultural and domestic water uses (Alem, 2003). Elias,
are generally deeper than dug wells and are often used to supply drinking water to
livestock. The water of these wells is manually transported to the trough where the
livestock drink from. Elias are generally found in Southern Ethiopia.
Cisterns – “Are man-made caves or underground constructions to store water. Often
the walls of these cisterns are plastered to prevent water loss, deep percolation and/or
evaporation” (Prinz and Singh, 2000, pg. 4). The underground cistern (China Type),
found in Ethiopia, is employed to supply water for domestic for irrigation purposes to
drought prone areas. There are two variants to this cistern, one being shaped like a
bottle, the other in a circular formation. Both are constructed in a similar fashion with
the ground excavated to form the shape of the cistern. The surface is covered with
polyethylene or concrete plastering to avoid seepage loss. Both cisterns are expensive
and difficult to build, often too complex for individual farmers to construct
themselves. The capacity of each is 60,000L (Alem, 2003, pg. 5).
Aquifers – Form underground layers of water seeped into permeable rock or other
materials such as sand, gravel silt or clay. They generally occupy large areas under the
earth’s surface and will often supply other water sources such as streams, rivers, and
springs. Often, aquifers are on the receiving end of water harvesting, in that they are
often used as a way to store harvested rainwater. Recently, awareness of depleting
aquifers has spurred an increase in WH techniques that aim at directly recharging
14
15. these rapidly depleting resources. “Many forms of rainwater harvesting collect water
and store it underground for future use. Not only does this recharge depleting
groundwater sources, it also raises the declining water table and can help augment
water supply.” (Edugreen, 2006).
Qanats are an example of how an aquifer can be accessed to provide fresh water.
“Widely used in Iran, Pakistan, North Africa and even in Spain, the Qanat consists of
a horizontal tunnel that taps underground water in an alluvial fan, bringing it to the
surface due to gravitational effect. Qanat tunnels have an inclination of 1-2% and a
length of up to 30 km. Many are still maintained and deliver steadily water to fields
for agriculture production and villages for drinking water supply” (Prniz and Singh,
2000, pg. 3).
These examples of water harvesting methods are a combination of ancient methods
fine-tuned over thousands of years and new technologies developed within the last
half century. Today WH is experiencing a renewed vigour as nations all over the
world are establishing organizations dedicated to WH and developing new
technologies, in conjunction with traditional and indigenous knowledge, to improve
the extraction of water resources for productive use.
The Status of Water Harvesting Today and Water Harvesting Organizations:
After a large decline in the practice of WH and water collection, the 1950’s began a
renewed interest in both the research and practical fields. This resurgence of WH
began with the successful reconstruction of ancient WH forms in the Negev region of
the Middle East. Today most research in the field is taking place in Israel, Australia,
the United States and India (Prinz, 1996).
The Jordan basin, a large ancient aquifer shared between Jordan, Israel, and
Palestine, supplies fresh groundwater to these riparian nations. “Groundwater is the
most important source of freshwater supply in the area and consists of the main
aquifer systems that are located and recharged from rainfall in the West Bank” (pg. 4,
Middle East). At present the average rainfall in the West Bank is 2,597mcm per year,
which is not nearly enough to recharge these ancient aquifers with water that has been
15
16. extracted to drive the agricultural sector in the Middle East (Applied Research
Institute Jerusalem, 1996).
Today many different organizations, including various government organizations, are
experimenting with methods using WH as an alternative to groundwater extraction
and as a way to augment crop production and development in the region. For
example, studies in Israel are looking at research into the following four areas of WH;
testing specific WH techniques, studying soil surface characteristics, studying and
modelling runoff behaviour and finally analyzing the economy of WH techniques.
(Prinz, 1996).
In Jordan as well, WH technology is making leaps and bounds with the
implementation of large scale WH projects initiated by the government, specifically
Jordan’s Ministry of Agriculture, and various university organizations (e.g. ACSAD).
The “Jordan Highland Development Project” was put into action in 1972 which
involved using rock dams, contour stone bunds, trapezoidal bunds and earth contour
bunds to increase soil moisture around trees planted on steep lands.
In Tanzania WH, particularly rainwater harvesting, is quickly becoming widely
accepted within this east African nation. Seen as a way to improve water availability
and land productivity, RWH has become a key element in the Agriculture Sector
Development Strategy, as implemented by the Tanzanian government (Mbilinyi et al.,
2005). There has been particular interest in understanding the indigenous knowledge
of traditional WH methods, so that new legislation and implementation schemes can
effectively incorporate time-tested strategies with new development.
In India, a country that has had a rich history of WH, has again taken the lead in this
renewed global interest in WH. Spurred on by a national water harvesting campaign
initiated by the Centre for Science and Technology (CSE) and IIT Delhi, the city of
Indore adopted an official strategy of RWH in order to combat the water demands on
groundwater and other water resources brought on by increased urbanization and over
population (Surana and Mankad, 2003).
16
17. In 2000, the Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC) established a Rainwater Harvesting
and Recharging Department to create awareness among citizens and assist them in
adopting WH techniques (Ibid.). Techniques employed by the city department
included; recharge of dry dug wells, recharge of used and unused bore well by
perforated casing pipe, recharge of tube well by circular trench method, water
recharge by pile/column, ground water recharge through well-shaft tube, and well
recharge by injection recharge method (Ibid.). In the few years after this official
development strategy, over 3000 residential buildings have adopted various WH
techniques, as well as in various other government buildings, schools and public
areas.
In addition to this augmentation of WH among individual cities, nations and
governments around the world, many NGO’s and Not-For-Profit Organizations have
adopted various WH methods into their developmental strategies. Many of these
organizations have arisen to “tackle poverty by working with local communities to
establish sustainable supplies of clean water for improved health and increased
agricultural production” (PumpAid, 2007). These WH methods are employed by the
organizations to increase agricultural potential and improve the quality of life for
those living in water scarce areas.
The following three organizations, PumpAid, the Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater
Partnership (GHARP), and the Southern and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network
(SEARNet) are outlined in this paper due to their contribution to the development of
African communities through water harvesting.
PumpAid
PumpAid’s mission is to relieve poverty by providing communities with reliable
access to clean, safe water for drinking and irrigation in rural Zimbabwe and
neighbouring countries. It is focused on providing appropriate, sustainable water
systems using the elephant pump to schools and communities.
The elephant pump is a reinvention of 2000 year old technology adapted from the
Chinese. The system uses a rope, fitted with rubber washers at equal intervals, which
runs through a pipe that is connected to the water supply. When the wheel is turned,
17
18. the rope with the washers runs through the pipe drawing the water up and out of the
pump (PumpAid, 2007). This system has several benefits which include; fully
protected water source providing clean drinking water, rate of extraction is
approximately 1 litre per second, low cost of construction, ease and extremely low
cost of maintenance, ease of operation for children and the elderly, and is suitable for
extraction from depth of up to 30 meters (Ibid.).
PumpAid prides itself on being culturally sensitive and works to create a sense of
ownership within the community for their projects (Ibid.). Contact is made at all
levels in the community, from the grass-roots to community leaders and government
agencies. This is done to ensure that the entire community understands the purpose
behind PumpAid and are willing to accept the organizations help prior to any action
taken within the community. PumpAid has strict requirements regarding the
construction, implementation and maintenance of their projects. Locals must provide
materials, and the manpower needed in construction and upon completion of the
pump, are responsible for its maintenance and upkeep.
This organization aims to work as a facilitator, providing communities with the skills
they need to create, implement and maintain these water projects themselves.
GHARP
The Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP) is a regional network of
National Rainwater Associations (NRWA) which uses RWH techniques to improve
the lives of people living in poverty in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA). This
organization is a conglomerate of smaller regional organizations that have come
together to work towards the promotion of RWH techniques in Eastern Africa.
GHARP was formally established in March 2001 and has since been working
tirelessly to improve water access in Eastern Africa.
Member organizations include:
• Ethiopia Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
• Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA)
• Rainwater Association of Somalia (RAAS)
• Rainwater Harvesting Association of Tanzania (RHAT)
18
19. • Uganda Rainwater Association (URWA)
(GHARP, 2005)
“Strengthening Regional Rainwater Networking Mechanisms: Promoting Adaptive
Strategies for Food Security” was a GHARP project that was funded by the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID) through the institutional
Strengthening and Grant Management (ISGM) administered by PACT/MWENGO
with a budget of US$250,000. This project was aimed at strengthening a regional
rainwater network to coordinate the identification and evaluation for RWH
technologies with the purpose of promoting best practices in rainwater management to
enhance food security and water availability in the GHA (Ibid.).
The purpose of this study was to identify and analyze the technical, socio-cultural,
gender, economic and agronomic factors that affect promotion, adoption and
adaptation of promising technologies. A second, follow-up study was conducted
called “Promotion of Rainwater Management Technologies in the Horn of Africa:
Multi-Sectoral Approach towards Sustainable Livelihood of Pastoral Communities.”
This project was designed to demonstrate and test viable integrated RHM systems and
dissemination approached among rural communities in semi-arid districts (Ibid.).
Finally, a third project was conducted, called “Integrated Rainwater Harvesting and
Management Systems and Complementary Technologies for Improving Water
Supply, Food Security and Sustainable Livelihoods in Semi-Arid Districts of Kenya.”
It was designed to enhance poverty reduction and sustainable livelihoods through the
promotion of integrated RHM systems and complementary technologies in the
marginal districts of Kenya (Ibid.).
WH methods that have been implemented in this region include; Ferro cement tanks
in Makueni, Kenya, the construction of reinforced Masonry tanks in Oromia regional
state, Ethiopia, An Earth Dam in Laikipia, Kenya, Rock Catchments in Kitui, Kenya,
Underground tanks in Tanzania, as well as various terraces, planting pits and micro-
irrigation schemes throughout the region (Ibid.).
19
20. SEARNet
The Southern and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SEARNet) was conceptualized
in 1998 at a regional WH workshop organized by the Regional Land Management
Unit (RELMA) in Machakos, Kenya, where it was believed that a regional network
should exist to inform, educate and implement developmental strategies related to
water conservation (SEARNet, 2006). In 2001, at a meeting held in Livingstone,
Zambia, a statement of intent was established and the organization was on its way to
becoming registered as an international NGO. Today, SEARNet consists of 10 partner
nations, Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda,
Zambia and Zimbabwe, as well as three affiliates, Eritrea, Mozambique and South
Africa (Ibid.).
The purpose behind SEARNet is to “network among its member associations within
the region for the promotion of rainwater harvesting and utilization” (SEARNet
Mission statement). With this network firmly established, It is the vision of SEARNet
to “improve livelihoods of the people living in these regions through the contribution
of sustainable management, utilization of rainwater and encouraging community
based water harvesting” (Ibid.). SEARNet works on a similar scale as GHARP, to
develop sustainable water harvesting techniques and infrastructure. Both
organizations share a number of the same partners in their development strategies,
with many countries that form the horn of Africa also sharing in SEARnet’s goals.
SEARNet has developed several methods through which it tries to increase RWH
awareness and augment development in this field. These methods, through which they
aim to achieve their vision, include creating publications, website development,
working through awareness campaigns, establishing model/demonstration sites and
conducting policy research (Ibid.). Some examples of the network’s demonstration
sites include, Magoya in the Lake Victoria basin of Kenya. Here RELMA and the
University of Nairobi have focused on the use of river, wells and runoff water for
agricultural production (Ibid.). Another focus of the organization is conservation
farming in rural Zambia. This project is situated on a farm located 20kms from
Lusaka. SEARNet publishes a quarterly newsletter called “SEARNet Briefs” with the
intent to create awareness of WH within the network’s organizations and partner
countries.
20
21. There are many more examples of organizations and governments who are using WH
as a means to combat poverty, reduce drought and increase agricultural production.
As awareness of WH grows through organizations like the ones profiled here, many
lives can be improved through WH.
Conclusions
“Water is life's mater and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without
water.” (Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, 1937). Never has this been more true than today.
Natural resources are quickly becoming scarce commodities. Once thought to be a
never-ending renewable resource, clean, fresh water supplies are rapidly depleting,
causing drought and drought-like conditions around the world. “Today, one billion
people lack access to safe and affordable sources of clean water, and over 2.4 billion
people lack adequate sources for sanitation” (Postnote, 2002). Now, more than ever,
WH is needed to ensure that water needs in these water-scarce areas are met.
Water harvesting has played an important role in the development of many regions
throughout history. Methods devised thousands of years ago are finding new life in
today’s technology as WH and hydrological conservation have become increasingly
important. Today many organizations, such as PumpAid, GHARP, and SEARNet, are
working together with governments, research groups and other agencies to bring WH
into the forefront of development around the world. Working together, these
organizations are trying to improve access to clean sources of water for many in
water-stressed areas. WH allows for users to harness sources of water that would not
be possible to obtain through conventional means. WH systems also allow for crop
irrigation in (semi) arid regions and can be used to recharge groundwater in order to
alleviate pressure exerted on these limited resources. WH also has the potential to
catch the water where it lands and use it as a clean source of drinking water and for
other domestic purposes making it an ideal method for water conservation.
21
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