Soil resource, water resources, Soil of India, Soils Of Abroad, type of soils

1. Soil And Water Resources of India And Abroad
G.B. Pant University Of Agriculture And Technology,
Uttrakhand 263145
NAVEEN KUMAR BIND

2.  Do you think that what exists today will continue to be so, or the future
is going to be different in some respects? It can be said with some
certainty that the societies will witness demographic transition,
geographical shift of population, technological advancement,
degradation of environment and water scarcity. Water scarcity is
possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased
demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to over utilization and
pollution. Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the
globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with
it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water. In
fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for
human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time.
The tensions and disputes on sharing and control of this scare resource
are becoming contested issues among communities, regions, and states.
The assessment, efficient use and conservation of water, therefore,
become necessary to ensure development. In this chapter, we shall
discuss water resources in India, its geographical distribution, sectoral
utilisation, and methods of its conservation and management.

3.  India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per
cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s
population. The total water available from precipitation in the country
in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water
and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60
per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water
resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
 The total water received from precipitation is not available for use, as
much of it is lost by evaporation and a good deal of it goes as run-off to
rivers, lakes and ponds. A small amount seeps through the soil to form
groundwater.
i. The surface water is available to us in the form of rivers, lakes, ponds
and other water bodies.
ii. Rivers are the most important source of surface water in our country.

4. iii. The mean annual flow of Indian rivers is about 1900 billion cubic metres.
Out of this only about one-third of this can be utilized.
iv. The total flow of all rivers of India is about 6 per cent of the discharge of
all rivers in the world.
v. The effective storage capacity of surface water in India is only about 150
billion cubic metres, which is only 8 per cent of the total flow of all the
rivers.
vi Thus, about 92 per cent of the surface water flows into the sea.

5.  There are four main sources of water: (i) Surface water (ii)
Underground water (iii) Atmospheric water, and (iv) Oceanic water. In
our daily life we use only surface water and underground water. Let us
study them in detail.
 (A) Surface water – The main source of surface water is precipitation.
About 20 percent part of the precipitation evaporates and mixes with
the environment. A part of the running water goes underground. The
large part of surface water is found in rivers, riverlets, ponds and lakes.
Remaining water flows into the seas, oceans. Water found on the
surface is called surface water.
 About two – third of the total surface water flows into three major
rivers of the country – Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra's. The water
storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17400
billion cubic meters. At the time of independence, the water storage
capacity was only 180 billion cubic meters. Hence water storage
capacity has increased about ten times

6. River basin Surface water flow Underground water
Annual flow Usable
capacity
Renewable Usable
capacity
Indus 71.3 46.0 26.5 24.3
Ganga 525.0 250.0 171.0 157.0
Brahmaputra 629.0 24.0 27.0 24.0
Godavary 110.5 76.3 40.7 37.0
Krishna 70.0 58.0 26.4 24.0
Kaveri 21.4 19.0 12.3 11.3
Mahanadi 68.9 50.0 16.5 15.0
Narmada 45.7 34.5 10.8 9.9
Tapi 14.9 14.5 8.3 7.6
Other rivers 365.4 11.82 74.0 68.2
Total 1952.1 690.3 431.32 395.6
(Figures in billion Cubic metre)

7. The storage capacity of usable water in the Ganges basin is the maximum, but in
spite of maximum annual flow, the storage capacity of usable water is the least in
Brahmaputras basin. The storage capacity in Godavary, Krishna, Mahanadi and
Indus is sufficient. If storage capacity of usable water is seen in terms of ratio, then
Tapi river basin is 97 percent. Annual water flow in the three major rivers of India
– Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputras is more. Hence water storage capacity of these
rivers can be increased.
(B) Underground water
Rain water percolates into the earth’s surface and becomes underground water.
The process of percolation also take place from the surface water. Large amount
of water gets collected under the Earth’s surface by these two methods. This is
called underground water. According to Central Underground Water Board
renewable underground water capacity in India (1994-95) was about 4310 billion
cubic metre per year. Out of this about 3960 billion cubic metre water is available
for use. The distribution of undergrounds water is not the same everywhere.
Availability of
underground water depends upon the amount of rainfall, nature of rainfall, nature
of land and its slope. In the areas of high rainfall where the land is almost plain
and
has porous rocks, the water easily percolates there. Therefore underground water
is available in plenty at shallow depths in these areas.

8. In the areas like Rajasthan where the land is plain and has porous sandy soil, the
underground water is available in lesser amount at greater depths due to lack of rainfall. In
the north-eastern areas of the country, where the land is sloppy, the conditions are not
suitable for percolation of water inspite of more rainfall. With the result underground water
is available in less quantity at greater depths in these areas also. There are large resources
of underground water in the plains of Ganga – Brahmaputra and in coastal plains.
The availability of underground water is less in peninsular plateau, Himalayan region
and desert areas.

9. Underground water is used on a large scale in the areas
where the rainfall is comparatively less. Underground
water is used on a large scale in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh
whereas Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnatake and Chhattisgarh are such states where inspite
of less rainfall, the use of underground water is less.
There is a great need to develop underground water
resources here.

10. The soil is one of the most important natural resources that
nature has provided to humankind. It actually sustains life on
the planet as it is an essential ingredient for growing plants.
But have you noticed that not all soils look the same? This is
because the soil has a large range of variety. In fact, there are
thousands upon thousands of soil types in the world.
There are a variety of reasons for these variations in soil.
Primarily soils are different from region to region due to the
climatic conditions (like temperature, rainfall etc). The
variety of flora and fauna of a region also has an influence on
the soil profile. And there can even be a human influence.

11. Introduction:
Soil is the uppermost part of the Earth’s crust. It is formed due to the weathering of rock under
the influence of climate, vegetation, relief and parent rock. Indian soils reflects the above said
combination of factors that has gone behind in making it.
The formation of the soil in a particular climate is so
perfect that each climate type and its own soil.
1) Soil ingredients: Soil being an important natural resources has many factors affecting its
formation and they are:
a) The parent material whose brake down gives regolith.
b) Topography particularly the slope aspects i.e., whether it is steep, gentle or undulating as this
will determine whether the soil is going to be thick or thin, whether prone to erosion etc.,
c) Climate being one of the most important factor acts through moisture, temperature and wind
conditions.
d) The type of vegetation found in the particular region has over-whelming responsibility for the
coloration and the structure of the soil.

12. Only where the above said factors have acted for sufficient amount of time that the soil
become mature. None of these factor, however work in isolation, but they have an integrated
effect on the other component which is an inseparably linked with every other
component making a system termed “SOIL FORMING SYSTEM”.
Sub unit: 2 Classification of soil United states Department of Agriculture (USDA) has an
approximation classification of soil as inceptisols, vertisols, Alfisols, oxisols, histosols,
ultisols, podsols,mollisols, entisols, Aridosols and spodosols. Inceptisols whose meaning
being “beginning” i.e., inceptum in latin. They are basically reworked soils with drier
composition, light colouration and loamy texture.
Vertisols on the other hand are argillaceous, black, loamy soil, containing carbonates of
calcium, magnesium, aluminium-di-oxide, Iron oxide. Alfisols, are found on the margins of
vertisols where in they tend to develop under varied sub-humid to humid type of climate and
in forest vegetation type, they being wide productive and suitable for good crop yield.
Oxisol is derived from the French word “oxidei” found over large tracts of place however the
climate is hot and humid with uniform temperature conditions. Histosols derives its name
from Greek word “Histos” meaning “tissue”. Found in the water saturated environments and
marshy tracts containing good amount of organic matter such as woody pests and
decomposed muck.
Ultisols found in the high rainfall, forest vegetation regions with low base status i.e, less than
35% base saturation. Podsols support large temperate forest has they are rich in Calcium(Ca),
Magnesium (Mg), Potash(P), Manganese(Mn), Iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al), and organic
nitrogenous matter

13. Mollisols are found at higher altitude with youthful landscape developed on lime rich parent
material. They are characterized by dark colored, thick, organic matters rich surface horizons.
Entisols are characterized by absence of pedogenic horizon with great variation in texture,
colour, and composition.Aridosols derives its name from Latin word “Aridus” meaning “Dry”
are mineral soils of dry places having high ground water table.
Spondosols derives its name from the Greek word “Spodos” meaning “Wood ash” are also
mineral soils but with accumulation of humus in the sub-soil. They are not fertile soils and are
used only for forestry and development of pastures.

14. The Indian council for agricultural research (ICAR) has
divided Indian Soil into 8 major groups they are :
a) Alluvial soil
b) Black soil
c) Red soil
d) Laterite soil
e) Desert soil
f) Mountain soil
g) Saline soil and Alkaline soil and
h) Peaty soil

15. Major Soil Types of India

16. a) Alluvial soil:
Alluvium are finer particles of rock materials carried in suspension and later deposited by the
river in its bed and bank. The soils which is composed of alluvium is called alluvial soil.
These soils are important and extensive in India contributing greatly to the development of
agriculture in the country where in they are confined largely to the flood plains of Satluj-
Ganga and Bhrahmaputra from Punjab to Assam, the valleys and plains of river Narmada,
Tapti, Mahanadi, Godhavari, Krishna and Cauvery covering about 23.40% of the total soil
cover in India.
Being one of the most important and fertile soils of India they support growth of wide variety
of crops such as Rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, jute, potato and vegetables, but they are
deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous and Humus.
b) Black soil: are so called because of their black colouration and derived from the Basalt
rock under semi-arid conditions. It is also known as “Regur” or black cotton soil as it is best
suited for cotton cultivation. In India black soil are largely found over deccan trap region
namely the states of Maharshtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Andhra Pradesh, Northern part of
Karnataka, Gujarath, parts of Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. Black soil occupies 24.12% of the
total soil cover of the country with chief crops grown on it such as cotton, sugar cane, ground-
nuts, millets, maize, pulses, sunflower, wheat and chillies. They are rich in Iron, line, calcium,
magnesium, Carbonate and alumina, poor phosphorous, nitrogen and organic content.

17. Red Soil;
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow and red soils are also found in parts of
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form
d) Laterite soil
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil
develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season. This
soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep to
very deep, acidic (pH<6.0) generally deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly in
southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal
and North-east regions. Where these soils support deciduous and evergreen forests, it is
humus rich, but under sparse vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is generally
humus poor. They are prone to erosion and degradation due to their position on the
landscape. After adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the hilly
areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and
coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for
crops like cashew nut.

18. e) Desert soil;
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in texture and saline
in nature. In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and
the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
because of the increasing calcium content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the
bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of water. After proper irrigation these soils become
cultivable as has been in the case of western Rajasthan.
f)Forest Soils;
These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are
available. The soils texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are
formed. They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes. In
the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with
low humus content. The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the
river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

19. Soils are basically the essence of life on the earth. Which is why they
matter the most when they are near human population. In fact, the kind of
soil found in an are may define the population structure of the place. In
ancient times the world population would depend on the soil structure of
the world.
One way to keep track of the different types of soils found in the world is
via soil mapping. These maps show the distribution of the different
varieties of soil that can be found in a particular area. This helps the
farmers with their agriculture, helps the government keep a check on soil
pollution, helps environmental conversationalists, etc.
These days the most fertile soils of the world are found around the
regions that have the highest population. The UNESCO has actually made
a soil map of the world to represent the different soil profiles of the
different regions of the world. Education and awareness of the soils of the
world and their preservation is an important factor in the fight against soil
pollution.