This document provides examples and explanations of different types of logical fallacies, specifically appeal fallacies. It discusses 12 different appeal fallacies: appeal to fear, appeal to flattery, appeal to novelty, appeal to pity, appeal to ridicule, appeal to emotions, appeal to disgust, appeal to spite, appeal to authority, appeal to coherence, appeal to consensus, and appeal to common practice. For each fallacy, it provides a definition and an example to illustrate how that fallacy works. The document aims to help the reader identify and understand different types of appeal fallacies that exploit emotional reasoning rather than logical reasoning.

1. LESSON 9
CRITICAL
READING
AND
REASONING

2. LESSON 9

14. KINDS
OF
LOGICAL
REASONING

15. Inductive Reasoning
• The logic used here is from specific to general, which is
utilized primarily in science.
• Evidence is synonymous to the use of this kind of
reasoning.
• Adding evidences makes the resulting information more
reliable.
• Example:
• Dictatorship in the Philippines ended when a leadership was
questioned even by its loyal followers during the EDSA
Revolution.

16. Deductive Reasoning
• The logic used from general to
specific, utilized primarily in math
and philosophy.
• It prevents us from committing
mistakes because there are boundaries
where we can base our inferences on.

17. Examples
• “I can deduct from the previous trajectory that the
new arrow will pierce through the Legions,” Felicity
said.
• There is no chance of rain today, so wear loose
clothing and put on sunblock cream.
• Your mother can only hear with you because you are
her child.
• The group believes that the problem on eliminating
rats can be solved by removing all sources of food
within the distance of 100 meters.

18. Abductive Reasoning
• There are multiple choices but there is
only one plausible explanation.
• Example:
• The Philippines’ chance of becoming
carbon neutral, just like Bhutan and the
Vatican City, is only possible if the
concerned government agency will first
look into small areas, like the barangays,
to check its carbon level.

19. EVALUATIVE
STATEMENTS
ABOUT A TEXT
• LESSON 10

20. Statement
• Is an expression or declaration of
something that can either be true or
false, which serves a purpose or
attitude, assertion, and proposition.

21. THESIS, ANTITHESIS,
AND
SYNTHESIS

22. THESIS
• Is a statement that acts as a premise to be
maintained or proved.
• It is the main argument and comes as a
result of a lengthy thinking process.
• It can also be a statement of claims about
a topic in relation to the object of study.
• Stands for a proposition or theory that is
widely believed in.

23. ANTITHESIS
• Comes as a reaction to a thesis.
• It acts as a negation to a thesis.
• Is a negation of refutation of this
theory

24. SYNTHESIS
• Provides a solution to the conflict
between a thesis and an
antithesis.
• Is a new theory that reconciles
these two opposing viewpoints.

25. Example:
• Thesis: People need to go the bank to
draw cash.
• Antithesis: It's not necessary to go to the
bank to draw money.
• Synthesis: Develop ATMs that can
dispense cash at convenient locations.

26. Examples:
• Thesis: The terrorists abduct foreigners to collect
ransom, which they use to finance their
activities.
• Antithesis: But according to terrorists, they only abduct
foreigners to make the government listen to
their plea for an autonomous region.
• Synthesis: Terrorists may have other alternatives to
make the government listen to their problems
as terrorism only bodes harassment and
violence. Instead of abducting civilians, they
should use more peaceful and righteous
ways to make their voices be heard by the
people in position.

28. 1. Statement of a critical evaluation.
• It is an evaluation or analysis of a book, journal
article or other medium.
• Example:
• This critical review has evaluated the book Man’s
Search for Meaning by Viktor E. Frankl. Frankl used
technical and hifalutin words which make the book
difficult to understand. He presented his theories well
with his personal experiences.

29. 2. STATEMENT ON A MAIN CLAIM ABOUT A
TOPIC, ISSUE OR PROBLEM.
• It is a persuasive or argumentative piece of
writing that begins with a debatable claim.
• This can be seen in research papers.
• Example:
• The old jeepney units should be phased out.

30. 3. TENTATIVE STATEMENT ON A MAIN CLAIM ABOUT A
TOPIC, ISSUE, OR PROBLEM
• It indicates the subject, approach, and limitations of a
topic without being specific.
• To express tentative statements, you can use limiting
words (possible, probably, likely), modal verbs (may
be, can be, could be, would have been, could have
been), or softening verbs (appears, suggests,
indicates).
• It can appear in research proposals.

31. Examples:
• It is likely for humans to survive in
Mars.
• His drinking habit could have been
the cause for his arrhythmia.
• From the study made, it appears that
asthma drugs can be beneficial to
fighting symptoms of memory loss.

32. 4. STATEMENT OF POSITION AND REASON
• A position or reason statement describes one
side of an arguable viewpoint.
• To write one, gather a list of reasons to
support a particular viewpoint, pull all the
information together, and make a clear stand
about it.
• This is used in a position paper.

33. • Example:
• Topic: school uniforms
• Arguable viewpoints: For/against school uniforms
For/ against a stricter dress code
• Viewpoint: For school uniforms
• Supporting reasons: To save money
To easily identify visitors from students
• Viewpoint: Against school uniforms
• Supporting Reasons: Advocating free expression
Expensive to buy and maintain
Statements:
1. Having a uniform policy in school will ensure the security of students in
school as visitors and students will be easy distinguished.
2. Having uniforms in school would limit the students’ self-expression and
would be an additional expense for them too.

34. 5. STATEMENT OF A MAIN CLAIM ABOUT THE TOPIC IN
RELATION TO THE OBJECT OF STUDY
• It is a statement based on a basic
truth that you know in your head and
no observation is necessary.
• It can be seen in analytic essays.
• Example
• All sisters are female siblings

35. 6. STATEMENT OF MAIN ARGUMENT AND MAIN
POINTS OF COMPARISON
• It is a statement which focuses on the
ways in which certain things or ideas
are similar to or different from one
another.
• It is used in comparative essays.

36. Example
• Both benigni’s and Pizza Squares offer a
greater variety of ingredients than
Cowabunga pizza place, but the lively
ambience at Cowabunga’s makes it a better
place to go to for a taste of pop culture.

37. 7. STATEMENT OF MAIN FOCUS OR DIRECTION
• It is a statement indicating one’s
reflection of how and why one has
changed as a result of learning.
• This is used in reflective essays.

38. Example
• In our class, we studied the play The
Million- Pound Bank Note by Mark
Twain. It was a good play and I really
liked it. In the class discussion, we talked
about many things like how one’s good
behavioral traits can lead him to fortunate
circumstances. The discussion was
interesting and I learned a lot from it.

39. 8. STATEMENT OF MAIN PURPOSE
• It is a statement that summarizes a specific
topic or goals of a document.
• This can be read in laboratory reports.
• Example:
• The purpose of this paper is to discuss the Zika
virus.

40. 9. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• It is a statement that illustrates a clear
vision and overall method that will be
used to solve the problem at hand.
This can be seen in case studies.

41. Example
• Stephen King writes that people naturally
like watching horror movies as a way of
expressing their inner violent emotions.
However, the problem with this theory is
that a lot of people hate horror films. Once
we see the real attraction to scary movies,
we will be able to have a better grasp of
American culture.

42. The following questions will help the
learner to be on the right track
• What do I know about the subject that can help me
understand more the information in the text?
• Do I understand why the writer has included this specific
information?
• Is the writer/ speaker qualified to write/ speak about this
topic?
• Is this an opinion that is presented as a fact?
• If I were to write an essay, what information would I
include that the writer/ speaker did not?
• What is the thesis and supporting ideas?

43. Steps in Making Evaluative
Statements
1. Read.
2. Collect and organize evidence.
3. Look for relationships between facts. Use
notes to let the reader understand your
opinion.
4. Look for the significance of the
relationships. Put everything together by
being clear and simple.

56. What is your take on the
following statements?

57. “When I said I’ll stop
criminality. I’ll stop
criminality. If I have
to kill you. I’ll kill
you…Yes of course, I
must admit I have
killed 3 months early
on, I killed what- 3
people?”

58. “Ang mahihirap,
kapag walang
makain at walang
trabaho, nangrerape”
Manoling Morato
Former PCSO Chairman

60. Assertions

61. At the end of this lesson, students will be able
to:
• Formulate assertions about the content
and properties of a text read;
• Formulate meaningful counterclaims
in response to claims made in a text
read.

62. What is Assertion?
What is Counterclaim?

73. ASSERTION
• When someone makes a statement
investing his strong belief in it, as if it
is true though it may not be, he is
making on assertion.

74. COUNTERCLAIM
• When someone makes an opposing
statement or argument to a claim, he is
making a counterclaim.

75. ASSERTIONS AND COUNTERCLAIMS
• Debate
• Conversation/ Discussion with
your Teacher

76. DEBATE

77. Tasks:
• Make an assertion and counterclaim based from the given
statement.
• Make an assertion
*Would the Philippines have been better if it is a state
of the United States of America?
• Make a counterclaim
*President Rodrigo Duterte, known for his all
consuming hatred of drugs, said he is open to the
legalization of medical marijuana if deemed beneficial
by the proper authorities.

78. FALLACIES
• Formal Fallacy has the appearance of
good argument, however emotional
and psychological.
• Informal fallacy exploits the
emotional and psychological
weaknesses of an audience.

79. APPEAL
FALACIES

80. 1. Appeal to Fear
• Appealing to fear to persuade is a commonly used
method everywhere. There is the presence of implicit
coercion that can affect change in one’s attitude, which is
why it is used even in marketing, which includes fear of
social rejection.
• Example
• If you do not drink your vitamins or eat vegetables, you will
get sick.

81. 2. Appeal to Flattery
• Appealing to the aspired consequences only takes
effect during use of certain product.
• It seems to say, ‘you do as it says, or if not….’
• Example:
• You look attractive because you use papaya soap.

82. Appeal to novelty
• Appealing to what is trending,
fashionable, or new.
• Example:
• The school is newly painted so it
should look better than before.

83. Appeal to pity
• Of all appeals to emotions, this may be the
most used.
• This is the way of exploiting someone’s
feelings of pity or guilt in order to win an
argument.
• Example:
• If I do not have enough allowance, I will
just walk home from school.

84. Appeal to ridicule
• Appealing to present an opponent’s
argument as ridiculous, absurd, impossible,
or just a mere humorous idea without any
merit.
• Example:
• “Mom, if I dress up in the prom as you wish, I
will be the laughing stock of all”.

85. Appeal to emotions
• This involves the manipulation of others’ emotions
in order to win an argument, especially if there is
no factual evidence to prove one’s point.
• Example:
• You see a mother and her child begging for alms. The
question is, is the alms really intended for the child, or is
the scene being used for the adult’s gain because it looks
like the child’s exposure to sun and rain proves more
detrimental to the child’s health?

86. Appeal to disgust
• Appealing in the guise of moral uprightness.
• It also refers to the notion that wisdom may
manifest itself in feelings of disgust towards
anything which lack goodness.
• Examples:
• Same sex marriage or partnership;
• May- December affair

87. Appeal to spite
• Appealing to pride so there is lack of
humility. There is the presence or the
absence of forgiveness, vengefulness,
and antagonistic behavior to a
protagonist.
• Example:
• Serves her right!

88. Appeal to authority
• Appealing to one who speaks with authority and has ample
knowledge.
• This person has significant experience, has undergone training,
or has a degree to show as proof of his authority.
• Respect is usually given to someone in authority.
• Examples:
• Mathematicians can say if the equation is correct or not.
• COA or Commission on Audit is a department in the government
that deals with malversation of fund by any government employee.

89. Appeal to coherence
• Appealing to something undisputable.
• All facts and details of an idea are
organized into one coherent thought where
the human factor is not of significance.
• Example:
• Spell check and grammar check on Microsoft
Word.

90. Appeal to consensus
• Appealing to what most people
believe to be true.
• Example:
• The old belief that the world is flat.

91. Appeal to consistency
• It does not mean that if one is consistent, he speaks the
truth.
• The only flaw in this appeal is its lack of coherence and
completeness where all facts can be found into one
truth.
• Example:
• Employee I was never late from day 1 to day 30, but
is does not mean that he will be the paragon of
employee performance.

92. Appeal to correspondence
• Appealing to almost likeness which makes
it most valid.
• The degree of similarity between object
and the idea is exact or the same.
• Example:
• Putting the law into your hands.

93. Appeal to custom
• There are fewer mistakes when you
follow the routine, or the commonly
done or regularly followed rules.
• But is does not follow that by doing
the customary, you are doing what is
true.

94. Example
• Doing hazing before acceptance to
a brotherhood or sisterhood has
been customary, but it is not as it
should be.

95. Appeal to intuition
• This appeal focused on the sudden
rush of feelings or ideas.

96. Example:
• On a survival trip, you were asked to roam
around and find means to appease your
thirst and hunger. Having instant flashes of
ideas not necessarily mean that the
conceiver of the idea is holding the truth.
Catching fish by throwing rocks may be
right, or digging a small well will result in
a spring of water fir the thirsty.

97. Appeal to common practice
• Statistics is not the basis of the
truth becoming acceptable.
• The more followers, the more an
idea becomes closest to the truth.

98. Example
•Just because your parents or
grandparents use a certain
product does not mean it
would be the best product
for you too.

99. Appeal to consequences of a
belief
• This is the appeal that involves forming of
beliefs and making decisions according to
what might be pleasing to the imagination
rather than the reality.
• Example:
• A little boy riding a broom like a horse.