The document outlines the principles of critical thinking, emphasizing the importance of analyzing and evaluating information to make informed decisions. It explains the distinction between argumentation in logic and everyday misunderstandings of the term, and details the components that make up a logical argument. Additionally, it addresses the roles of description, explanation, and summarization in academic writing and critical analysis.

1. English
Composition
Lecture 8
CS-01-B
19-10-20

2. Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking
focused on deciding what to believe or do.
• The ability to think critically about a matter—to analyze a
question, situation, or problem down to its most basic parts—
is what helps us evaluate the accuracy and truthfulness of
statements, claims, and information we read and hear.
• The academic setting demands more of us in terms of critical
thinking than everyday life. It demands that we evaluate
information and analyze myriad issues.

3. Contd….
• We must consider information in an analytical, critical manner.
• We must ask questions:
• What is the source of this information?
• Is this source an expert one and what makes it so?
• Are there multiple perspectives to consider on an issue?
• Do multiple sources agree or disagree on an issue?
• Does quality research substantiate information or opinion?
• Do I have any personal biases that may affect my consideration of this information?
• Critical thinking involves being skeptical and challenging
assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly
accepting what you hear or read.

4. Criticism
• In popular usage, ‘criticism’ tends to be negative -someone
who always criticizes others.
• But the English word ‘criticism’ comes from the ancient Greek
verb krino meaning ‘to judge.’
• A ‘critic’ therefore (in Greek) was a judge someone
• who investigated the evidence.
• tested the evidence (cross-examined witnesses)
• considered alternative arguments and explanations
• reached a conclusion (verdict)

5. Contd…
• Academic usage builds on the Greek sense
• Academically, a critic is someone who... - investigates the evidence
for and against different ideas, theories, presentations of ‘facts’ and so
on - tests the evidence through cross-examination.
• Considers alterative perspectives and explanations.
• Reaches an informed opinion in the light of evidence.
• Gives reasoned arguments for the conclusion reached.
• (NEVER ‘this is true’ BUT ‘this is true because...’)

6. What is Critical Thinking
• Learning how to present an effective argument.
• This means learning to present your reasoning and evidence in
a clear, well structured manner (just as the writers of the texts
you've read have had to present their ideas).
• Different formats (e.g. essay, report, dissertation, projects
• etc.) mean that argument is presented in different ways but
will always lead to a logical conclusion

7. Contd…
• Critical thinking means:
• Stepping back from immediate personal feelings
• Examining data from different angles
• Checking the accuracy of information
• Checking the logic of the argument
• Looking for possible flaws in argument
• Understanding why other people see it differently
• Checking statistics and other empirical data
• Checking undeclared assumptions
• Reaching informed conclusions
• Always look beneath surface; challenge your own thinking:
• What is main point I want to make?
• Can I back up my argument?
• Is my evidence relevant, accurate, up-to-date?
• Is my view based on false premises/false logic

8. Argument
• In everyday life, people often use "argument" to mean a
quarrel between people.
• But in logic and critical thinking, an argument is made to
address a specific issue, by offering a position and providing
reasons for that position.
• The arguments use reasons for the position held, to persuade
others to the point of view. An argument may include
disagreement, but is more than simply disagreement if it is
based on reasons.

9. Parts of an Argument
• An argument is a list of statements, one of which is the
conclusion and the others are the premises of the argument.
• To give an argument is to provide a set of premises as reasons
for accepting the conclusion.
• Conclusion is the final statement of the position someone is
taking on an issue.

10. Indicator Words
• Readers have to decide which statement is intended to be the conclusion,
and which are the premises.
• Do not make the mistake of assuming that the conclusion comes at the end.
• The conclusion is often at the beginning of the passage, but could even be
in the middle.
• A better way to identify premises and conclusions is to look for indicator
words.
• These are words that signal that statement following the indicator is a
premise or conclusion.

11. Indicator Words
Conclusion Premise
Therefore Since
So Because
Thus For
Hence Is implied by
Consequently For the reason that
Each argument will likely use only one indicator word or phrase. When the
conclusion is at the end, it will generally be preceded by a conclusion indicator.
Everything else, then, is a premise. When the conclusion comes at the beginning, the
next sentence will usually be introduced by a premise indicator. All of the following
sentences will also be premises.

12. Example 1
• Bilingualism and multilingualism confer many benefits.
Speakers of more than one language have a better
understanding of how languages are structured because they
can compare across two different systems. People who speak
only one language lack this essential point of reference. In
many cases, a second language can help people to have a
better understanding and appreciation of their first language.

13. Example 2
• I cannot agree with people who say that smacking children
does them no harm. Of course it harms them, both physically
and emotionally. Hitting another person is assault and it would
not be tolerated against an adult. Many adults have no sense of
the cruelty of smacking precisely because they were smacked
themselves as children and erroneously regard this as normal.
They then go on to assault other vulnerable people,
perpetuating a vicious cycle.

14. Activity 1
• People are less politically aware now than they have been at
any time in the past. For hundreds of years, people took great
personal risks to fight for causes that would benefit other
people more than themselves. This rarely happens today. As
late as the 1980s, there were frequent rallies with people in
one country demonstrating to show solidarity with people
elsewhere. Now, rallies are more likely to be for personal gain
such as better salaries or student grants rather than for political
issues of wider application. Even low risk activities such as
voting in elections attract low turn-out

15. Solution
• People are less politically aware now than they have been at
any time in the past. For hundreds of years, people took great
personal risks to fight for causes that would benefit other
people more than themselves. This rarely happens today. As
late as the 1980s, there were frequent rallies with people in
one country demonstrating to show solidarity with people
elsewhere. Now, rallies are more likely to be for personal gain
such as better salaries or student grants rather than for political
issues of wider application. Even low risk activities such as
voting in elections attract low turn-out

16. Non-Arguments
• Descriptions give an account of how something is done, or what
something is like.
• They do not give reasoned accounts of how or why something
occurred nor do they evaluate outcomes.
• Description is sometimes confused with critical analysis as both
can investigate an issue in detail.
• Descriptive detail is not intended to persuade to a point of view but
aims, rather, to give the audience a more thorough impression of
the item or issue being described.

17. Example
• The solution was placed in a test-tube and heated to 35"
centigrade. Small amounts of yellow vapor were emitted.
These were odorless. Forty milliliters of water were added to
the solution, which was then heated until it began to boil. This
time, grey steam was emitted. Water droplets gathered on the
side of the test-tube.

18. Contd…
• This describes the steps taken in an experiment.
• Careful description of methodological procedures is an
important part of writing up any kind of experimental
research.
• No reasons are given for what happened.
• That critical analysis of the results would be in a separate part
of the report.

19. Contd….
• Explanations can appear to have the structure of an argument.
• They may include statements reasons, leading to a final
conclusion, and be introduced by signal words similar to those
used for arguments.
• However, explanations do not attempt to persuade the audience to
a point of view.
• They are used to:
• account for why or how something occurs;
• draw out the meaning of a theory, argument or other message.

20. Example
• It was found that many drivers become drowsy when
travelling and that long hours at the wheel were a major cause
of accidents. As a result, more stopping places were set up
along motorways to enable drivers to take a break.
• The above example explains why more stopping places were
set up along motorways.

21. Contd…
• Summaries are reduced versions of longer messages or texts.
Typically, a summary repeats the key points as a reminder of
what has been said already, drawing attention to the most
important aspects. A conclusion may include a summary of
what has been said already. New material is not usually
introduced in a summary.

22. Example
• For this cake, you need equal weights of self-raising flour,
margarine and sugar. Add one egg for approximately each 50
grams of flour. Place all the ingredients in a bowl and beat
furiously for three minutes. Blend the ingredients well. Pour
into a greased tin and cook in the oven at 190°C for 20 mins
until it is risen, golden brown and coming away from the sides
of the tin. Different ovens may require different timings.
Leave to cool before adding decoration such as jam and
cream. Therefore, to make the cake, simply buy the
ingredients, mix well, cook at 190°C, leave to cool and
decorate to taste.

23. Activity 2
• The village was located near the outer reaches of the city. The
city was starting to encroach upon it, swallowing it up, road by
road. It would not be long before the village disappeared
altogether, to become part of the huge conurbation forming on
the Eastern seaboard. To the west, hills enclosed the village,
trapping it between the city and the mountains beyond. A
single road led out from the city, through the village and into
the mountains.

24. Contd…..
• There were many reasons why the student was an hour late for
the seminar. First of all, a pan caught fire, causing a minor
disaster in his kitchen. It took twenty minutes to restore order.
Then, he couldn't find his house keys. That wasted another ten
minutes of his time. Then, just as he closed the door behind
him, the postwoman arrived, saying there was a parcel to be
signed for. Her pen didn't work which held them up further.
Finally, of course, he had to find his keys, which had once
more slipped to the bottom of his bag, in order to re-open the
door and place the letter on the table

25. Contd….
• Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is set in Verona in Italy. At the
beginning of the play, Romeo is pining for another young
woman, but quickly falls for Juliet at a ball. Although their
two families are hostile to each other, Romeo and Juliet enlist
the services of their friends and a friar to bring about their
marriage. Unfortunately, in a tragic turn of events, they each
kill themselves, believing the other to be already dead.

26. Contd…
• The bas relief images of horses, bison and red deer found in
Creswell Crags, England, bear remarkable similarities to those
found in Germany. It is unlikely that two separate cultures
would have produced drawing of such similarity if there were
not links between them. This suggests that there were greater
cultural links between continental Europe and Britain during
the Ice Age than was formerly believed.

27. Conclusion
• The fundamental tool of the critical thinker is the argument.
People often use “argument” to refer to a dispute or quarrel
between people.
• In critical thinking, an argument is defined as a set of
statements, one of which is the conclusion and the others are
the premises.
• One of the statements in the argument is called the conclusion.
The other statements are premises; which are the reasons
offered for believing that the conclusion is true