Traditional Chinese architecture was heavily influenced by Confucianism and emphasized hierarchical relationships and social order. Courtyard residences were designed according to Confucian principles, with rooms arranged by status and gender. City planning followed Confucian codes, laying cities on a square grid and differentiating buildings by rank through size and decorative details. The Forbidden City best represents these Confucian influences through its emphasis on the emperor's authority and distinction of interior and exterior spaces.

1. CHINESE
ARCHITECTU
RE
1
CULTURE & ARCHITECTURE

2. CHINESE
ARCHITECTURE
INFLUENCES
OF
CONFUCIA
NISM
TAOISM
BUDDHISM
2

3. • Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken
shape in East Asia over the years. Over the centuries, the structural
principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged,
the main changes being on the decorative details.
• An ancient civilized nation and a great country on the East Asian
continent, China possesses a vast territory covering 9.6 million sq.
km. and a population accounting for over one-fifth of the world's
total, 56nationalities and a recorded history of 3,OOO years, during
which it has created a unique, outstanding traditional Chinese
Culture.
• Traditional Chinese buildings are always found in pairs or groups,
whether they are residences, temples or palaces.
• Most structures in Chinese architecture are simple rectangles, and it
is the architectural complex composed by single structures rather
3
than the single structures themselves that expresses the broadness

4. • Traditional Chinese architecture
can still be seen throughout
China, offering a tangible
expression of traditional Chinese
culture.
• Traditional Chinese architecture
encompasses palaces, temples,
tombs, parks, and residences. • Traditional Chinese
architecture represents the
synthesis of political,
economic, cultural, and
technical influences over the
ages.
• In the past, these structures
provided the ancient Chinese
people with functional space 4
to live and work in. Today,

5. CONFUCIA
NISM
5

6. ARCHITECTURE & CONFUCIANISM
• Confucius (551-479 BC) FUNDAMENTAL
established the Confucian school PRINCIPLES :
of thought around 500 BC, during Among the fundamental
China's Spring and Autumn principles of Confucian
Period (770-476BC). philosophy are:
• Confucianism became one of the  Loyalty
pillars of Chinese culture, and was  Filial piety
named China's official state  moral integrity
ideology around 100 BC, during  Righteousness
the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD)  benevolence
by Emperor Han Wudi, who  wisdom
reigned from 140-87 BC.  Faith
• It continued to be revered  Adherence to the
throughout subsequent dynasties. Confucian code
• Confucian philosophy attaches  The absolute authority of
great importance to ethics and the ruler over subject, 6
human relationships, and is one of father over child, and

7. COURTYARD RESIDENCES: CONFUCIAN IDEOLOGY
• Confucian ideology DESIGN • Rites in Confucianism was a
IN RESIDENTIAL was the
core of feudal China's means of regulating order in
hierarchical social system. human relationship. Its
• Traditional courtyard ultimate purpose was to ensure a
residences drew strict social order.
distinctions between interior • The quadrangle building was
and exterior, superior and one the reflected rites in
inferior, and male and traditional chinese residential
female; internal affairs and building.
external affairs, the • In traditional Chinese
honorable (master) and architecture,
humble (maid) ranking. o The center was considered to
• The compounds were enclosed be superior and the sides as
and isolated from the outside inferior;
world, and serving as material o the north was superior and the
expressions of Confucian south inferior;
7
ideology. o The left was superior and the

8. • In courtyard residences, • Woman cannot enter external
region. Guests cannot enter
WING ROOMS
internal region.
NORT Receives most • All the windows in quadrangles
H sunlight; Center are faced towards the inside of
Room - Living Room the house. There are no
/Ancestral hall windows inside the rooms,
East rooms- which look isolated. But inside
grandparents room the house, it formed a natural
West rooms-Head of system.
the family • It emphasized the relationship
SOUT guest rooms, studies, between elder lies and
H kitchens, and youngster, eldest son and
• The southern and back rooms
storerooms younger son, male and female
EAST Eldest Son &to form a
will have short walls his status.
division family internal and
between • It reflected a parochial feudal
class system of "Higher-lower
WEST family. sons and
external younger
• At the back are also rooms of
their families
ranking class 8
system",

9. COURTYARD RESIDENCES: CONFUCIAN IDEOLOGY
IN RESIDENTIAL DESIGN
Principal Room
East wing-
Eldest son
Courtyard
West wing- Gate of
younger sons Residential
complex
Plan of Typical Courtyard Residence - SIHEYUA
9

10. Aerial view of
courtyard
residence
Interior view of 10

11. THE CONFUCIAN CODE AND CITY PLANN
• City planning was based primarily on the Confucian code that
held up the feudal system.
• Urban planning has played an integral role in the life of Beijing
throughout its history.
• The city was laid out on a square grid, and covered an area of
approx 50 square kms.
• A high wall surrounded the entire city, with three gates on the east,
west, and south walls, and two gates on the north wall.
• The main thoroughfares, which formed a north-south and east-west
axis through the city, were 28M wide.
• The secondary streets were 14 M wide, and the alleyways were 7M
11
wide.

12. • The 13th century capital city of Dadu was built using the
architectural principles of the Confucian classic Zhou Li:
Kaogong Ji (Rites of the Zhou: Engineering References), which
states: "When designing a capital city, it should be laid out in a
square grid measuring nine by nine li (about 4.5 kilometers) per
side, with three gates on each of the city walls.
• There should be nine streets and nine avenues, each wide enough
for nine horse carts to pass abreast.
• The palace should be in the center of the city, with the ancestral
temple on the left, temples to the deities on the right, office
buildings in front, and a marketplace behind.“
• The layout of the city was extremely orderly, with clearly
demarcated streets and districts. 12

13. CITY PLAN OF
DADU 13

14. HIERARCHICAL DISTINCTIONS IN ARCHITEC
• China's hierarchical social system gave rise to a highly restrictive
system of architectural regulations.
• All construction was controlled by a building code that clearly
differentiated rank and status. This code controlled every aspect
of design and construction, and was enforced as law.
• A comprehensive building code was established which specified
permissible construction for each level of society, from the
imperial family to the nobility, officials, & the common people.
• Its regulations encompassed every aspect of building design and
construction, including scale, floor plan, roof shape, and
decoration.
• Stone lions: Only officials of the fifth rank and above were
allowed to place the magnificent stone lions outside the gates of
their homes.
• Officials in ancient China were classified according to rank. The
fifth rank was regional administrators,. 14

15. • The number
of rows in a
lion's mane
further
indicated
the rank of
the home's
resident.
• The
emperor's
lions had
thirteen
rows, those
of dukes
and princes
had twelve A Qing-era guardian lion pair within the
Forbidden City - The lions are always created in
rows, and pairs, with the male resting his paw upon the
15
those of world and the female restraining a playful cub

16. BEIJING'S FORBIDDEN CITY PALACE - BEST
REPRESENTATION OF CONFUCIAN RITE
• The Forbidden City • Beijing's Forbidden City,
represents the ultimate designed by Ming Dynasty
architectural expression of (1368-1644) architect Kuai
Confucian ideology. Xiang, who lived from 1397 to
• Beijing's Forbidden City was 1481.
the most classical example • This massive imperial courtyard
and representation of complex clearly embodies the
Confucian Rite system. Confucian emphasis on strict
• In Confucianism, there was a divisions of rank, and the
strong emphasis on the position of the individual
relationship of an individual within a hierarchical system-
in a collective society. Emphasis on divisions between
• Forbidden city forms a super- ruler and subjects, husband and
large quadrangle architecture wife, Nobles and commoners
that was the most complex etc.,
representation of this rite • The Forbidden City served as 16

17. • The complex includes • The residential portion of the
ceremonial halls, emperor was at the rear. At the
governmental offices, and center line from south to north
housing for servants and staff, as are the living halls of the
well as the palaces and emperor and queen.
courtyards, in which the • They were also formed by a
members of the royal family group of 3 large halls to reflect
lived, studied, worshipped, and the meaning of “Past dynasty
entertained. at the back “.
• The Emperor's working office • In ancient times, Chinese
was at the front of the city nobles has the system of 'one
complex and was used by the husband, one wife and many
Emperor to hold large ceremony. concubines'.
• Important ceremonial functions • The living hall of the queen
and audiences with civil and was in the centerline of the
military officials were carried • This living arrangementother
back while the
out in three large halls. was used to reflect12 palace
concubines lived in the
• These halls were constructed on ranking systemeast and west
courtyards on between 17

18. 18
Forbidden city – Architecture of Quadrangles

19. A. Meridian Gate
B. Gate of Divine
Might
C. West Glorious Gate
D. East Glorious Gate
E. Corner towers
F. Gate of Supreme
Harmony
G. Hall of Supreme
Harmony
H. Hall of Military
Eminence
I. Hall of Literary
Glory
J. Southern Three
Places
K. Palace of Heavenly
Purity
L. Imperial garden
M. Hall of Mental
19
Cultivation

20. The design of the
Forbidden City, from its
overall layout to the
smallest detail, was
meticulously planned to
reflect philosophical and
religious principles, and
above all to symbolise the
majesty of Imperial power.
Some noted examples of
symbolic designs include:
20

21. SYMBOLISM
• Yellow is the color of the • The sloping ridges of building
Emperor. Thus almost all roofs roofs are decorated with a line of
in the Forbidden City bear statuettes led by a man riding a
yellow glazed tiles. There are phoenix and followed by an
only two exceptions. The imperial dragon. The number of
library at the Pavilion of statuettes represents the status of
Literary Profundity had black the building – a minor building
tiles because black was might have 3 or 5.
associated with water, and thus • The Hall of Supreme Harmony
fire-prevention. Similarly, the has 10, the only building in the
Crown Prince's residences have country to be permitted this in
green tiles because green was Imperial times. As a result, its
associated with wood, and thus 10th statuette, called a
growth. • "Hangshi", or "ranked tenth”, is
Thus, ancestral temples
• The main halls of the Outer and alsoinunique of the palace.
are front in the Forbidden
Inner courts are all arranged in City. areas are placed in
Storage
groups of three – the shape of • Thefront part of the palace
the layout of buildings follows
21

22. • Taoism is a religion native to
China. Laozi,a famous thinker
living in 6th Century BC,
established this philosophy and
came to be regarded as the father
of Taoism.
DAOISM /
TAOISM
• It formed mainly during Eastern
Han Dynasty (25-220). Many
Taoist ideas and thoughts are
22
greatly reflected in Taoist

23. DAOISM
MAJOR DAOIST PRINCIPLES THE DAO (TAO)
1. Dao [Tao] is the first-cause To escape the “social,
of the political, & cultural traps”
universe. It is a force that of life, one must escape by:
flows through all life. 1. Rejecting formal
2.A believer’s goal is to knowledge and
become one with Dao ; one learning.
with nature. 2. Relying on the senses
3.Wu wei - Let nature take its and instincts.
course. 3. Discovering the nature
- The art of doing and
nothing. “rhythm” of the
- Go with the flow! universe.
4.Man is unhappy because he 4. Ignoring political and
Nature-worshiping and ghost-worshiping, popular in ancient
lives according to man- social laws.
Chinese laws, customs, &a social and cultural basis to the
made society, contributed 23
formation of Taoism.

24. THE UNIVERSE OF OPPOSITES – YIN & YANG
YANG
YIN
• Masculine
• Feminine • Active
• Passive • Light
• Darkness • Warmth
• Cold • Strong
• Weak • Heaven
• Earth • Sun
• Moon
24

25. BELIE
• S
FDaoism focused on meditation, • Daoism has influenced
breathing and recitation of verses. Chinese culture for over
This was the dominant practice of 2,000 years.
Daoism until about 1,100 AD. • Its practices have given
• In the 5th Century AD, the birth to martial arts such
Lingbao school emerged which as Tai Chi and Qigong.
borrowed much from Buddhist • Healthy living such as
teachings such as reincarnation practicing
and cosmology. The use of vegetarianism and
talismans and the practice of exercise.
alchemy were also associated with • And its texts have
the Lingbao school. codified Chinese views
• In the 6th Century, Zhengyi on morality and
Daoists, who believed in behavior, regardless of
protective talismans and rituals, religious affiliation.
emerged. Zhengyi Daoists • The basic ideas of
25
performed offering rituals for Taoism are Changsheng

26. MAIN
• The Dao:
T E N E T S The ultimate truth is • The De: Another key
the Dao or The Way. component of Daoism is the
• The Dao has several meanings. De, which is the
It is the basis of all living manifestation of the Dao in
things, it governs nature, and it all things.
is a method to live by. • De is defined as having
• Daoists do not believe in virtue, morality and integrity.
extremes, instead focusing on
the interdependence of things.
• There is no total good or evil or • Immortality: Historically, the
negative and positive. The Yin- highest achievement of a
Yang symbol exemplifies this Daoist is to achieve
view. immortality through
• The black represents the Yin breathing, meditation,
the white represents the Yang. helping others and the use
Yin is also associated with of elixirs.
26
weakness and passivity and • Daoists believe that

27. ARCHITECTURE &
• Taoist architecture includes • Taoism reached its peak
various structures D A O I S M to
according during the Tang Dynasty and
different functions, categorized as the Song Dynasty, when
palace for oblation and sacrifice, Chinese timber framed
altar for praying and offering, architecture, characterized by
cubby for religious service, high base, broad roof and
residence for Taoist abbes and perfect integration of
garden for visitors. decoration and function,
• During the last period of the East matured in all aspects were
Han Dynasty when Taoism was built.
introduced, Taoist ascetics mostly • There were strict regulations
lived in huts and even caves in on size, structure, decoration
remote mountains under guidance and use of colour.
of their philosophy of nature. • For the 660 years, Taoism,
• During the Jin dynasty and the • Buddhism result, there
As a and Confucianism
Northern and Southern dynasty, influenced similarities in that
remained each other, so
27
Taoism experienced reforms and certain
designing and grouping in
structures

28. ARCHITECTURE &
DAOISM
• Taoism pursues the • In every single yard, there are
harmonious unity of neatly located attached
humans and nature. architectural structures. The
Taoists skillfully built whole layout reflects Taoists'
temples that conformed to emphasis on order and
the contours of the land. equability.
• Starting with inherited • Most Taoist architectures
Chinese traditional ideas resort to nature topography to
of construction, they added build towers, pavilions,
their own concepts. lobbies and other garden
• Splendorous symmetric structural units, decorated
architectural complexes with murals, sculptures and
are composed of many steles to entertain people, fully
ordinary yards spreading interpreting Taoist philosophy
orderly along a central of nature.
axis. 28

29. • Taoist architecture applies two • The second is the Bagua
architectural styles - style in which all structures
traditional style and Ba-gua surround the Danlu (stove to
style. make pills of immortality) in
• In the traditional style, the center according to
traditional architectural Bagua's position request.
layout, which is symmetric, • The center axis from the
was applied. south to the north is very long
• Main halls were on the central and structures flank the axis.
axis, while other religious • The style reflects Taoist
structures on the two sides. philosophy that the human
• Usually, on the northwest cosmos follows the natural
corner of the complex, Lucky cosmos to integrate energy, qi
Land to Meet God was and spirit.
located.
• Annexes like dining hall and
accommodation were located at 29

30. • In Taoist principles, GOLD, WOOD, WATER, FIRE AND
EARTH are considered five elementary substances to form
everything in the world.
• Timber was chosen by Chinese architects because it is derived
from wood, one of the five. Taoism respects anything which is
more of nature or closer to nature as first choice when they make
choices among many alternatives.
• It is believed that when people live in a timber house rather than
cements or stone structures, they are supposed to keep a constant
exchange with nature and reach the integration of nature and
human beings.
• That's why Taoist architecture resort to nature topography to build
towers, pavilions, lobbies and other garden structural units,
decorated with murals, sculptures and steles to entertain people,
30
fully interpreting Taoist philosophy of nature.

31. DAOIST • Taoist temple buildings,
• EMPLES
TTaoist temple buildings also basically consist of the divine
clearly reflect Taoists' hall, the alter, the room for
strong will in the pursuit of reading sculptures and
happiness, longevity and practicing asceticism, the living
immortality. room, the reception room for
• Most Taoist temples are pilgrims, and the park.
wooden-framed and have • The main hall for a single deity,
garden structures. Some but other deities’ statues could
garden features are man- come on the sides or behind the
made pavilions, towers, main statue.
walkways and terraces. • The general layout adopts the
• Quiet and beautiful form of Chinese traditional
mountains provide an courtyard, with the divine hall
unblemished environment on the mean axis and the
in which Taoists can reception room and Taoists'
cultivate their inner selves. living room, etc., on both sides.
31
• Together with a park • Also, an interesting feature of

32. CHINESE TAOIST
TEMPLESof Dragon and
• A Statue
Lion guards the gates
of a Taoist temple;
• In the main hall, the
four Heavenly
Emperors in Taoism
replace the Buddha The highest three celestial realms of Jade Purity,
trinity and four Highest Purity, and Great Purity. They are
Heavenly Kings in emanations of Tao, omnipresent and supreme.
Buddhism;
• The stories illustrated
in Taoist murals depict
a more earthly world of
common people rather
than holy or sacred
The Three Star-gods of
Happiness, clay figures
world and Rank and
32
Affluence, and Longevity.
set in the hall are more

33. O R N A M E N TAT I O N &
D Taoist R AT I O N
• ECO • Taoist architectural
architectural motifs were
decoration meaningful -
reflects Taoist Celestial bodies
pursuit of luck mean brightness
and fulfillment, shining everywhere
long lifespan while landscape
etc., and rocks
• Common immortality.
decorative The stove for offerings • Folding fan, fish,
figures of a narcissus, bat and
Daoist temple deer are used to
include a imply beneficence,
tortoise wealth, celestial
intertwined being, fortune and
with a snake, official position. 33
elephants, motif
Fish

34. Roof with upturned eaves & rich
ornamentation
Taoist Temple in a picturesque setting
Taoist Temple set up along with
the topography of the place 34

35. DEITIES &
I M M O R TA L S
The Door Spirits are the The Kitchen Spirit
spirits who guard the
doors of houses.
35

36. BUDDHI
SM
36

37. • Buddhism was • Chinese Buddhism refers
introduced to China collectively to the various
from India around the schools of Buddhism that have
first century AD, since flourished in China since
the fourth century AD, it ancient times. Buddhism has
was widely spread and played an enormous role in
gradually became the shaping the mindset of the
most influential religion Chinese people, affecting their
in China. aesthetics, politics, literature,
• Because of varied philosophy and medicine.
introduction time and
channel as well as • The coming of Buddhism to
regional, historic and China from India was a great
social backgrounds, event in the development of
Buddhism in China is Chinese culture and of
divided into three Buddhism itself.
37
branches, namely

38. • After a long period of • It is said that in the year 2BC, Yi
assimilation, it established Cun, an emissary of Dayuezhi
itself as a major system of Kingdom (an ancient mid-Asian
thought as well as a country established by a strong
religious practice, Chinese minority originally
contributing greatly to the living in northern China and later
enrichment of Chinese moved to the west), went to
philosophy and exercising Chang'an (today's Xi'an City) to
and enduring influence on impact Buddist sutras to a
the Chinese popular Chineses Doctor Jing Lu. And
religion and on the mind this is the first record about the
and character of the introduction of Buddhism into
Chinese people. China.
• Indeed, it became one of • There is another saying that
the Three Pillars of the during the reign of the Indian
traditional culture of King Asoka (272-226 BC), 18
China. Indians visited China’s Xianyang38
• Buddhism was firstly City during the reign of Emperor

39. • The feature of Chinese • During the Southern and Northern
Buddhism lies in the Dynasties(420-589) the ruling
coexistence of Mahayana classes further helped the spread
Buddhism and Hinayana of Buddhism by building
Buddhism. temples and monasteries,
• Buddhism was initiated in translating Buddhist sutras and
India, developed in China constructing grottoes, and many
and further expanded to famous monks, scholars and
Japan and Korea. teachers emerged.
• Indian Buddhists were • By the Sui and Tang
threatened by the values and Dynasties(581-907), Buddhism
socio-political structures of reached its apex of popularity and
the Indian society dominated splendors, and different sects of
by Hinduism and Islam and Buddhism had been formed in
vanished between 9th China .
century and 10th century in • Over a long period, Buddhism
India while Buddhism were gradually took root in the feudal
39
developed rapidly in China society of China , intermingling

40. • The development of • Differing from other
Chinese Buddhist religions' temples, Chinese
architecture can be traced Buddhist temples have many
back to the introduction of characteristics of their own.
Buddhism. • For example, similar to
• The main Buddhist Chinese palaces and
architectural icons include dwelling houses, they are
TEMPLES, PAGODAS, comprised of a number of
AND GROTTOES. small yards.
• Buddhist architecture is • The oldest temple in China -
regarded as a great art White Horse Temple is a
treasure where sculpture, typical example of this.
calligraphy and painting • Temple roofs were curved
combine. because the Buddhist
• Being the spiritual believed that it helped ward
symbols of Buddhism, off evil spirits which were
they are not only monastic believed to be straight lines. 40

41. BUDDHIST SYMBOLS
• The umbrella
• The Golden Fish
• The Treasure
Vase
• The Lotus
• The Conch Shell
• The Endless
Knot
• The Victory
Banner
• The Dharma
Wheel
41

42. • LOTUS: The Lotus • ENDLESS KNOT: The
flower is one of the most endless knot is a geometric
important religious diagram which symbolizes
symbols in Buddhism. The that everything is
lotus symbolizes purity interrelated. All living
and enlightenment. Lotus things exist only as part of a
flower symbol has been web of karma and its effect.
depicted in some form or As the endless knot has no
other in Buddhist art. beginning and no end, it also
Especially, Buddha is often represents the infinite
portrayed as sitting on a wisdom of Buddha.
lotus while praying for
enlightenment. • DHARMACHAKRA:
• CONCH SHELL: The Dharmachakra is one of the
conch shell is used in best known symbols of
Buddhist rituals for Buddhism which is a
gathering devotees turning wheel which 42

43. INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM IN
• H I influence of Buddhism on
CThe N A • The introduction of
Chinese culture is profound, Buddhism also exerted
not only in terms of religion, subtle influence on China's
but also literature, art, traditional customs and
traditional customs, etc., social mores.
• Ancient Chinese architecture, • It helped improve people's
being exquisite and view on life and the
magnificent, especially further spreading of filial
Buddhist temples, had its piety.
configuration originated and • The principle of "Bad
imitated from primitive deeds, as well as good,
Buddhism of India. may rebound upon the
• The development of sculpture, doer." is deeply rooted in
painting and murals accelerated the society, causing people
due to the prosperity of to do good deeds in order
Buddhism in China. to pursue a better afterlife.
43
• Yungang Grottoes located in • The advocacy of filial

44. BUDDHISM & ARCHITECTURE
• The main Buddhist architecture • Buddhist temples tend to
include temples, pagodas, and be decorated in red or
grottos. black, and there is a main
• The architectural styles of hall for a statue of a
Buddhist temples in China were Bodhisattva, followed by a
mainly formed in three periods: smaller hall with statues of
 HAN DYNASTY other Buddha's and
(206BC-220) - retention of deities.
Indian styles. • The Chinese Buddhist
 NORTHERN AND monastery or temple is
SOUTHERN fashioned after the
DYNASTIES (386-589)- imperial palaces and bears
wooden framework was very little resemblance to
added to the original styles. the temples in India or
 TANG DYNASTY (618- other Buddhist countries.
907) - the styles of • Generally there are three 44
Buddhist temples were groups of buildings

45. • Grotto, another type of
Buddhist architecture,
is often chiseled into
cliffs. In the 3rd
century, Chinese
Buddhists began to
build grottoes and
Xinjiang is the first
area where grottoes
were hewn.
• Grottoes are decorated
with painted
sculptures, carvings The Long-men Grottoes in Henan Province
and frescos.
• Craftsmen revealed real
life pictures and their
understanding of
45
society in these art

46. Mogao Grottoes
Grottoes of Zhongshan Mountain
46

47. PAGODA
• Pagoda, symbol of Buddhism is
often erected in temples.
• Pagodas were made of stone,
wood, colored glaze or metal.
• Pagodas have an odd number of
layers. Seven-layer and Nine-
layer pagodas are commonly
built.
• The shape of cross-section is
rectangular, eight-sided or even
circular.
• Initially, the pagoda served as the
central axis alongside which rows
of halls and monks' rooms spread
out.Later, pagodas were built near
the main palace hall.
47
• Chinese pagodas, in short, are a North Temple Pagoda

48. STUPA
• Stupas appeared in China with the
import of Buddhism and, during a long
history of well over a thousand years,
have become a valued part of the
national Buddhist art.
• Stupa, a word from ancient Sanskrit
meaning a square or round tomb or a
'soul shrine’.
• The perfect proportions of the Buddha’s
body corresponds to the design of
religious monuments - STUPAS
• Its architecture developed from the pre-
Buddhist Indian grave-mound.
• Under these mounds the saintly
ascetic were buried; their bodies were
seated on the ground and covered with Beihei Park , Beijing
48
earth.

49. Stupa & Pagoda – Analogy with the 5 elements of nature
49

50. 50