Buddhist architecture

Buddhist Architecture
Prof.AbhijeetB. Shinde, Pravara Rural College of Architecture,Loni

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof.AbhijeetB. Shinde,PravaraRuralCollege ofArchitecture,Loni
From “A History of Indian Buddhism_From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana” by H Akira

INTRODUCTION
• In the 6th century BCE , two men,
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha, or
“enlightened one”) and Mahavira Jain,
both from marginal clans, asserted the
idea of an independent and individual
journey to spiritual bliss, or nirvana, that
contradicted not only the principles of
warfare, but also the highly regimented
Vedic rituals.
• The main difference between the two
men was that while meditation-based
practices were at the core of the
Buddha’s teachings, Mahavira Jain
insisted on a radical vegetarianism that
including a prohibition on farming, since
that inadvertently killed soil worms.

INTRODUCTION
• Asoka (r. 272–231 BCE) adopted
Buddhism as state law and moral order
• The difference between Asoka and his
predecessors was that he adapted
Buddhist teachings into a new moral and
social order for his empire that he called
the dhamma.
• In essence Buddhism became a state
religion.
• To promote his dhamma, which
consisted of about thirty-three edicts,
Asoka had them etched in stone tablets,
on the side of prominent rocks, and
inside cave sanctuaries, all in the
vernacular language of his kingdom.
The Brahmi inscription on the pillar

Ashokan Pillars
• He also carved them on the sides of
pillars, about twenty of which have
survived.
• One such pillar, in Lauriya Nandangarh
(in Bihar), made from a single piece of
polished sandstone, rises 12 meters
above the ground and extends 3
meters into the earth.
• Though it is surmounted by an ornate
capital, it is the shaft with the inscribed
edicts that is of primary significance.
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sunainasuneja/211826694/
(downloaded Sept. 2006)

Ashokan Pillars
• The Ashokan pillars consist of a stylized
lotus base that supports an ornamental
drum on which there are sculptures of
animals ranging from the bull to the
lion signifying royal authority.
• Most famous is the pillar found at
Sarnath, the site of the Buddha’s first
sermon, the lotus base and drum of
which is topped by a capital of four
lions.
• Surmounting all this, at least originally,
was the Buddhist wheel of law, which
has, in turn, been adopted as the
symbol of the modern Indian nation.
The Lion Capital on the ground at Sarnath, before
1911, probably 1904-05

Ashoka
• Asoka also memorialized the major
sites associated with the Buddha—in
particular his birthplace (Lumbini), the
site of his enlightenment (Bodh Gaya),
the location of his first sermon
(Sarnath), and the place of his death
(Kushinagar).
• The Buddha was never represented as a
human figure in Asoka’s time.
• Representations of the Buddha began
to be made in the 1st century CE and
have become important in the Buddhist
tradition ever since.

Monolithic Pillars
Boldly Designed, Finely Proportioned &
conceptually well balance
Purpose Solely monumental as they were free
standing pillars, not part of architectural
composition
Broadly Divided in Two parts –
1. Shaft
2. Capital
o Two Pipes joined together by copper bolt
accurately fitted into tenon made for it
o Shaft is circular piece of Stone tapering
towardsupperside(40-50ft long )
o Capital Placed on top of tapering shaft

Monolithic Pillars
Capital further Divided in Three parts
–
1. Inverted lotus or bell
2. Base pedestal
3. Animal with dhamma chakra
o Capital Design Symmetrical from
all 4 directions

Barabar hill caves
• Buddhist ascetics were
responsible for the
oldest rock-cut caves in
India, which date to the
mid 3rd century BCE
• They are located in the
Barabar Hills of Bihar, 20
miles north of Bodh
Gaya.
• There are four caves,
consisting of two
chambers each: a
rectangular hall
followed by a round
room with a
hemispherical ceiling.
Plan, section, andinterior:Lomas Rishi Cave

Barabar hill caves
• One of them, the Lomas Rishi Cave, is
incomplete.
• This cave has deeply carved openings and a
wooden roof outline with a finely etched
elephant frieze centered on a stupa.
• Since this cave has no inscription, it probably
dates to Asoka, though its exterior may well
have been carved later.
External Elevation:Lomas Rishi Cave

INTRODUCTION
• Late in the 2nd century BCE ,
Asoka’s Mauryan Empire began
to disintegrate, resulting in the
formation of a series of smaller
kingdoms:
1. The Sunga in the west,
2. The Satavahanas to the south,
and in
3. The north the Shakas.
• This transformation paralleled
an equally important
transformation within Buddhism
that had important implications
in the field of architecture.

INTRODUCTION
• As originally conceived, the Buddhist
monkhood was strictly mendicant.
• Its members lived itinerantly in poverty
and survived by begging; they were not
allowed to erect shrines, acquire
property, or deify the Buddha. This form
of Buddhism was subsequently referred
to as Hinayana (or the “Lesser Vehicle”).
• In time, as Buddhism began to receive
royal patronage and its practitioners
became more diverse, a more monastic
and populist form of Buddhism, known as
Mahayana (or the “Greater Vehicle”)
emerged that required the establishment
of institutions where monks could live
and study.

Stupa III
Great stupa
Temple 17
Temple 40
Global history of architecture
Plan
Stupa complex at Sanchi
• The most important of the remaining
Sunga period Buddhist complexes is
Sanchi, which was founded by Asoka and
flourished for thirteen centuries.
• The complex is located near the ancient
town of Vidisa, along the fertile river
valleys of the southern trade route (or
dakshinapatha).
• It is located on a hill that rises sharply
above the valley, making its three stupas
distinctly visible from afar.
• The surrounding hills are also surmounted
by stupas, all of which establish the area
as a sacred landscape.
• Large groups of visiting monks came to
Sanchi in processions.
STUPAS

STUPAS
• Stupas started out as reliquary
mounds, or chaityas, which can
denote any sacred place such as
where a funeral pyre had
occurred;
• They were usually marked off by
a wooden railing.
• Asoka had the Buddha’s bodily remains divided into eight parts and
distributed throughout his empire as relics, with their location marked by
ceremonial mounds. (Stupa means “piled up.”)
• Built by the thousands and becoming the dominant symbol of Buddhism,
stupas came to embody many meanings, some standing in for the body of
the Buddha, others for his enlightenment, and yet others serving as a cosmic
diagram.
• The fundamental elements of a stupa are present in the oldest of Sanchi’s
stupas, the so-called Stupa II (ca. 100 BCE).
Stupa II at Sanchi

• Conceptually, a stupa is a cosmological diagram
linking the body of the Buddha to the universe.
• The central mass consists of an earthen
hemispherical mound faced with fired bricks, with
a shallow berm (or medhi ) ringing its base.
• This round structure is then surrounded by a
stone balustrade (or vedika) that replicates a
construction out of wood.
STUPAS
Plan diagram: Stupa II atSanchi
• Both the interior and exterior surface of the vedika are carved with shallow
reliefs and medallions depicting scenes and events of Buddhist significance.
• The vedika has openings on four sides, aligned to the cardinal directions.
• These are accessed not on axis, however, but at right angles, through bent
entrances, all of which open in a counterclockwise direction.
• The cross axis of the cardinal directions, coupled with the directional
openings, form a space-time cosmological diagram, or mandala, in the form
of a svastika (or “swastika”).

The idea of the stupa
• The directions represent space, and the bent
entrances, replicating the movement of the stars,
represent time.
• The purpose of the vedika is to give spatial
definition to the ritual counterclockwise
circumambulation of parikrama.
• A Buddhist monk, or a pilgrim, in performing the
• parikrama, engages in a haptic reenactment
of the fundamental order of space and time,
and in the process, brings his or her body
into harmony with that larger order.
• In Buddhism, as in Hinduism, parikrama,
along with the mandala and the svastika
(totally unrelated to its Nazi appropriation),
are still fundamental to architectural
expression.

Globalhistory of architecturePlan: Stupa complex at Sanchi
STUPAS
• Stupa I is the largest stupa at Sanchi;
• it is also known as the Mahastupa, or
the “Great Stupa.”
• Begun by Asoka, it was enlarged to its
present diameter of 36 meters late in
the Sunga period.
• It is a solid mass built up in the form
of hundreds of stone rings that were
surfaced with plaster and painted.
(This outer surface has eroded away
and has not been replaced.)
• The significance of the Mahastupa is
highlighted by the rare presence of
one of Asoka’s pillars at its southern
entrance.

• The Mahastupa is
essentially a magnification
of Stupa II in plan, with the
addition of another vedika
around the inner medhi,
which is also accessible by
stairs on the south.
• This makes it possible to
conduct a double parikrama
around the stupa.
• At the top of the stupa is another vedika— the harmika—that is inaccessible
and serves only symbolic purposes.
• In the middle of the harmika is a finial, with three stone discs of diminishing
size, called chattris, balanced on a columnar support.
• The harmika and the chattris collectively denote the stupa’s vertical axis,
echoing Asoka’s pillar and completing the cosmic connections of the stupa.
STUPAS

Stupas
• The other innovation at the Mahastupa
are the monumental stone gateways
called toranas.
• The toranas, imitating wooden
construction, consist of two vertical
pillars supporting three horizontal bars
that are slightly bent at their center and
that project well beyond the posts.
• The beams end in volutes that connote
the sacred scrolls, the treasured objects
of the Buddhist sanghas.
• Like the vedikas, the surface of the
toranas are elaborately decorated,
depicting Buddhist themes and events,
completing the classic stupa as we know
it.

• Sanchi enjoyed extensive patronage and grew into a large monastic complex
of Buddhist learning and worship that included subsidiary structures where
the monks lived.
• The Hindus also recognized this site as important, and one of the oldest
Hindu stone temples—from the 4th century CE—is to be found there, close
to the southern entrance of the Mahastupa.
Stupas

Stupas
• A relief on the northern torana of the Mahastupa depicts a large ceremonial
procession, complete with musical instruments and offerings and led by
elephants, on its way to the Mahastupa.
• One has to imagine Sanchi thus—not as a remote monastery populated by
mendicant Buddhist monks totally disassociated from ordinary life, but as a
bustling center of religious activity where the monks and their patrons
enjoyed extensive contact and communication.

Stupas
• The Dhamekh Stupa and the
Dharmarajika stupa at
Sarnath are believed to have
been built by Ashoka and
later rebuilt in the Gupta
period.
• These stupas contain the
relics of Buddha and are
therefore important places of
Buddhist pilgrimage.
• Buddha gave his First Sermon
in Sarnath and also founded
the Sangha or Order of
Monks here.

Stupas
• The original Dhamekh
Stupa built with mud or
brick is a cylindrical
structure 43.5 m. high.
• The stone basement
has eight projecting
faces with niches in
them.
• Delicately carved with
beautiful floral and geo-
metrical patterns, it is
believed to have been
put up in thc Gupta
period.

Rock Cut Caves Chaitya hall,

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall, Bhaje
• Constructed for residential purpose and meditation
• Interior walls have smooth surface
• Architecture and construction detailing are derivatives of timberand
thatched construction hued out in stone

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall, Bhaje
• The caitya hall at Bhaja, Maharashtra (100–70BCE), besides being much
larger than the rest, dissolves the distinction between the stupa chamber,
with its parikrama path and antechamber. It fuses them into one large
space while maintaining the distinctive presence of the parikrama path by
creating a long, U-shaped colonnade that extends the entire length of the
hall. The consequence is a simple and elegant building that has the effect
of separating an independent three dimensional form from within the
larger excavation. The hall’s presence is projected at the entrance in the
form of a large opening with a horse shoe-shaped top, reflecting the
vaulted ceiling of the hall. As is the case with all Buddhist rock-cut
architecture, the caitya hall at Bhaja is carved out to faithfully imitate
wood construction, complete with ribs, inward leaning columns, and
traces of joinery. The exterior facade carved around the central opening
consists of a number of miniaturized faux building facades, complete with
carved human figures leaning over railings.

Rock Cut Caves - Chaitya hall, Karli
One of the largest and most impressive of the Buddhist chaityas was built in 120
CE at Karli, on the western Deccan Plateau. About 40m deep and 12 m wide,

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall, Karli
• the Karli cave is fronted by a
recessed entrance of stone
screens that has holes in it,
indicating that originally, a
larger wooden construction
was added to complete the
building.
• Just beyond the screen, on
the left, is a large pillar carved
from the same matrix as the
rest of the cave.
• The central panel of the cave
entrance is dominated by
several panels of male female
couples,

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall, Karli
• The end wall of the entrance portico
displays a stamped-out, repeated set of
horseshoe-arched building motifs that
sit a top a plinth composed of life-size
elephants, as if they were supporting
the weight of the superstructure
• (The entrance panels also contain
bodhisattvas, but these were carved in
the late 5th century CE, when the
iconography was “modernized.”)
• Compared to earlier chaitya caves, the
width of Karli’s central space is much
more generous in relation to its height
and depth.

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall, Karli
• The pillars separating the central nave
from the aisles have a pot base, an
octagonal shaft, inverted lotus capital
with an abacus.
• The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs
of elephants kneeling down, each with a
couple in front and caparisoned horses
with riders on them.
• The stupa at the apse end is tall and
cylindrical with two tiers of railings
around the drum. It is crowned by the
original wooden chhatra.

Rock Cut Caves
Chaitya hall,Karli
• The Karli stupa the focus of a
hierarchical composition.
• The stupa itself is relatively simple in
form.
• simple hemisphere sits atop a slightly
tapered base, ornamented with
carved vedikas.
• its chattri rises simply from a rectangular base, or harmika, which expands
into mushrooming tiers of horizontal bands.
• then it suddenly projects into space on a high vertical stambha, upon which
sits the final chattri, which becomes the focus of the entire composition.
• The chattri catches the light in the dark surroundings and there by appears
as a horizontal flash in the vertical composition.
• (The chattri denotes the umbrella of the Buddhist ideal under which the
monk finds shelter and faith.)

Ajanta Caves
• In 390 CE the Gupta king Vikramaditya
arranged the marriage of his daughter
Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II, the
prince of the vassal state of Vakataka,
through which went the dakshinapatha,
the southern trade route.
• The Vakatakas’ gratitude for their status
as guardians of the Dakshinapatha is
recorded in their lavish patronage of
Ajanta, the largest assemblage of
Buddhist rock-cut chaityas (meditation
chambers) and viharas (dormitories)
found anywhere in South Asia.
• These caityas and viharas are collectively
called caves even though they are not
caves but rock-cut architecture.

• Ajanta was a kind of college
monastery, affording
accommodations for up to several
hundred teachers and pupils.
• the Ajanta Caves have survived;
even their paintings are relatively
intact. Though somewhat difficult
to access, being on
dakshinapatha the caves
effectively served the needs of
both the Mahayana Buddhist
monks and their students.
• As Mahayana practitioners,
Ajanta’s monks were allowed and
encouraged to create Buddha
figures
Ajanta Caves

Ajanta Caves

Ajanta Caves
Plan: Cave complex
at Ajanta,near
Aurangabad,India
The caves are
numbered from east
to west, not
according to their
age.

The Ajanta Caves are located along the sheer
rock wall of a dramatic C-shaped chasm
carved by the Waghora River. The Waghora, a
mountain stream, forces its way into the
valley and forms in its descent a series of
waterfalls 60 meters high, which must
certainly have been audible to the monks in
the caves.
Ajanta Caves
The thirty-odd caves vary from 10 to 33 meters in
elevation above the river. Their chaitya window,
originally an imitation horseshoe-shaped wooden
window, has now been transformed into an
abstract representation of the Buddha, with a
prominent topknot and elongated “ears”
reminiscent of the ears of earlier statues of the
Buddha.

• The columns are
richly sculptured with
floral and figural
representations
symbolic of the
gardens where the
Buddha preached
and gained
enlightenment.
• The column capitals
and bases bulge like
the folds of the
corpulent Buddha.
Ajanta Caves
• The stupas are also richly ornamented, with Buddha statues attached
directly to their surfaces, presaging the eclipse of the stupa as the primary
representational element, particularly in China and Southeast Asia.

Ajanta Caves
• The oldest pre Vakatakachaityas(Caves No. 9 and 10,located almost in the
middle) were relatively simple, with an apsidal colonnade marking the
circumambulatory route around a largely Unadorned stupa at the end.
Section – cave no. 10
Plan – cave no. 10
Section – cave no. 09
Plan – cave no. 09

Ajanta Caves
Facade – cave no. 09

Ajanta Caves
Interior – cave no. 10

• CavesNos.19 (450CE) and 26
(490CE),from the reign of Harisena,
take on Mahayana overtones.
• Both have an elaborate forecourt
open to the sky, with side
chambers hewn directly out of the
rock.
• Unlike the great chaitya at Karli,
whose entrance replicates a
wooden assemblage of chaityas,
these are covered by large and
small Buddha figurines and stupas.
• No longer imitation-wood stage
sets, they are symbolic entities in
themselves.
Ajanta Caves
Facade, Cave 19, Ajanta

• Two figures of standing Buddha
flank the entrance.
• The walls of the hall and the ceiling
of the aisles is richly painted with
figures of Buddha, floral motifs,
animals and birds.
Cave 19, Ajanta
Ajanta Caves

• As Mahayana Buddhism became evermore
popular, it developed a more elaborate
liturgical practice that supported a richer
artistic program.
• Evidence of this can be seen in Ajanta’s
viharas, which served as the monks’
residences.
• Over time, the viharas at Ajanta changed
from simple dwellings for the monks to full-
fledged ceremonial spaces, but the basic
form, a rectangular colonnaded hall preceded
by a portico and surrounded by cells,
persisted.
Ajanta Caves
Entrance to Cave No. 2 at Ajanta

• The Ajanta viharas have a broad
veranda, the roof of which is
supported by pillars that open
into a central pillared hall
averaging about 6 by10 meters.
• The cells open to this hall. The
number of the cells vary
according to the size and
importance of the vihara.
• Some of the cells associated
with particularly significant
monks were transformed into
shrines with their own votive
Buddha statues (like at Caves
Nos. 2, 6, and 17).
Ajanta Caves
Plan: Cave No. 2 at Ajanta

Ajanta
Caves
Painting at Cave No. 2, Ajanta

• Structural expression is
denied. Like the imitation-
wood construction
present in the older
caityas, the essential
symbolic message of the
Ajanta viharas was to
display the profound
beauty of the life and
world of the Buddha and,
at the same time,
underline its character as
an illusion, or maya—a
fundamental doctrine of
Mahayana Buddhist
practice on the path to
nirvana.
Ajanta Caves
RecliningBuddha, Cave 26
(photo: Shriram Rajagopalan,CC: BY 2.0)

• Cave 1 is a magnificently painted
Vihara (monastery), filled with wall
murals, sculptures, and ceiling
paintings, that date back to the 5th
century.
• Originally, Cave 1 also had a porch
which led to the main hall, however
it has since collapsed.
• The main hall of Cave 1 is a square
in plan, with aisles along all four
sides.
• Adjacent to these aisles are
doorways leading to fourteen small
chambers.
• Cave 1 contains twenty painted and
carved pillars.
Ajanta Caves
Plan of Cave 1 (Erik128, CC: BY-SA 3.0)
Main
Hall
aisles
porch
Buddha
chambers

• Above the pillars are reliefs depicting tales from the life of Buddha (Jataka
tales). Located at the rear of the hall is a large shrine of the Buddha. The
walls were originally covered in paintings, but today there are only nine
surviving images, the most famous being the Bodhisattva Padmapani
(Padmapani in Sanskrit literally translates into "one who holds the lotus").
Ajanta Caves
View to the rear of Cave 1 with the Bodhisattva Padmapani to the left of the Buddha Shrine (photo: Christian Luczanits, CC: BY-SA 3.0)

Ajanta Caves
View to the rear of Cave 1 with the Bodhisattva Padmapani to the left of the Buddha Shrine (photo: Christian Luczanits, CC: BY-SA 3.0)

Ajanta Caves
• Some viharas even
acquired multiple stories
(Cave No. 6) and
ircumambulatory routes
(usually defined by a
colonnaded passage).
• As they began to house
more ceremonies, they
also became more
ornamental and
decorative, with images
depicting scenes from
the life of the Buddha and from Buddhist treatises painted onto the walls.
• Despite the dim light, every surface of the viharas was painted over. Art,
sculpture, and architecture, in other words, comingle to create a seamless,
sensory experience.

Ajanta Caves
Interior of Cave No. 26 at Ajanta Interior of Cave No. 19 at Ajanta

• The drum of the
central stupa is
elongated and carved.
• Projecting from the
drum is an arched
nasika or niche with
the figure of a
standing Buddha
carved in it.
• The rounded dome of
the stupa is
surmounted by a
harmika and three
tiers of chhatras,
Internal view , Cave 19, Ajanta
diminishing in size and supported by figures on four sides. On top of the
chhatras and touching the ceiling is another small stupa with a miniature
harmika.
Ajanta Caves

Viharas
• Viharas or monasteries constructed
with brick or excavated from rocks
are found in different parts of India.
• Usually built to a set plan, they have
a hall meant for congregational
prayer with a running verandah on
three sides or an open courtyard
surrounded by a row of cells and a
pillared verandah in front.
• These cells served as dwelling places
for the monks.
• These monastic buildings built of
bricks were self-contained units and
had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir
attached to a stupa - the chief object
of worship.

The viharas of Ellora dated 400 AD to 7th century AD are of one, two, and three
storeys and are the largest of the type. They contain sculptured figures and
belong to both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism
Three Storeyed Vihara,
Ellora

Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya, India

• Bodh Gaya, the garden in Gaya
near Patna where the Buddha is
said to have attained
enlightenment while sitting under
a pipal tree, is one of the most
venerated pilgrimage destinations
of the entire Buddhist world.
• The Mahabodhi (literally “Great
Buddha”) Temple at this site was
begun by Asoka, who ordered the
construction of a simple stone
platform, known as the Vajrasana
(“Diamond Throne”), to mark the
spot where the Buddha
supposedly sat.

Bodhi Tree
Lotus pond
Votive stupas

• In accordance with the nonrepresentational requirements of Hinayana
Buddhism, Asoka had no other representation or temple built at the site.
• The pipal tree itself is said to have been cut down by zealots, first in the 4th
century BCE and then again in the 7th century CE.
• But a sapling from the original tree, taken to Sri Lanka by Asoka’s daughter in
the 4th century BCE, still thrives. In the late Gupta period, the Mahabodhi
Temple (late 5th or 6th century) was constructed next to the tree.
• The temple has been renovated
repeatedly over time, and it is difficult to
be absolutely certain what part of it is
original to the Gupta period.
• Nonetheless, its contours today are not
that different from its description by
Hsuan Tsang (Xuanzang) in 637 CE.

• Hsuan Tsang recorded that
the Bodhi Tree was enclosed
by a strong, high brickwall
(originally built by Asoka) 500
paces in circumference.
• Rare trees offered shade,
while fine grasses, flowers,
and strange plants covered
the ground.
• The main gate opened east toward the Niranjana River, while the south gate
connected to a large lotus tank, the sacred tank where it is believed that the
Buddha spent a week.
• The north gate opened into the grounds of a large monastery.Inside there
were innumerable stupas and shrines, built as memorials by sovereigns and
high officials.

• In the center of the Bodhi Tree enclosure defined by a stone vedika or fence
(like the one around the Sanchi stupa) was the Vajrasana, sandwiched
between the Bodhi Tree to its west and, to its east, the Mahabodhi Temple,
48 meters high with a width of 20 paces.
• The temple was made of
bricks coated with lime. It had
tiers of niches with gold
images, its four walls were
adorned with exquisite
carvings of pearls, and at its
top was a gilt-copper stupa.
• Hsuan Tsang separately also
recorded that south of the
Bodhi Tree was an Asokan
pillar more than 30 meters
high.

• Along with the Bhitargaon Temple, the Mahabodhi Temple is among the
oldest multistory brick temples in South Asia.
• Although they went out of fashion in India once stone temples began to be
constructed, it is also possible that the development of the Buddhist
pagodas in China may have in part been inspired by Hsuan Tsang’s
description of this temple, which was widely circulated.
Vajrasana(“DiamondThrone”) at Bodh Gaya
• The Mahabodhi Temple is today clearly
similar to this description. It is
surrounded by four subsidiary shrines
at its corners that were added in the
19th century.
• The central chamber houses the image
of the enthroned Buddha of the
temple. The brick shikhara contains
another cella at the upper level with a
secondary image of the Buddha.

Reference :
1. GlobalHistory of Architecture by D.K. Ching
2. Images.googgle.com

Buddhist architecture

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