This document provides an overview of communicable diseases and their impact on human security. It defines communicable diseases as conditions transmitted directly or indirectly from infected people or animals. Selected diseases discussed include tuberculosis, malaria, HIV/AIDS, and avian influenza. These diseases place a significant burden on low and middle income countries and can have social, economic, and security impacts. Approaches to control discussed include personal responsibility, public health interventions, regulations and laws, and partnerships. Effective response requires a global approach as communicable diseases respect no borders in an increasingly interconnected world.

1. Communicable Diseases and
Human Security
NOPE International Institute
2014
Joel Karanja

2. Overview of Communicable
diseases
 Introduction and Definition
 Importance of CDs
 Selected CDs of Public Health Concern
 Mounting a Global Response
 Approaches to intervention
 Key elements of a global response

3. Human Security in a globalized world
 The changing role of policy makers in an
increasingly globalized world
 Shared space = Shared Destiny
 Local actions have global consequences
 Global interventions can achieve positive
local impact
 As long as human interactions exist,
Communicable diseases will remain an issue.

4. Communicable Diseases: Definition
 Defined as

“any condition which is transmitted directly or indirectly to a
person from an infected person or animal through the agency of
an intermediate animal, host, or vector, or through the
inanimate environment”.
 Transmission is facilitated by the following
 More frequent human contact due to

Increase in the volume and means of transportation (affordable
international air travel),

globalization (increased trade and contact)
 Microbial adaptation and change
 Breakdown of public health capacity at various levels
 Change in human demographics and behavior
 Economic development and land use patterns

5. CD- Modes of transmission
 Direct

Blood-borne or sexual – HIV, Hepatitis B,C

Inhalation – Tuberculosis, influenza, anthrax

Food-borne – E.coli, Salmonella,

Contaminated water- Cholera, rotavirus, Hepatitis A
 Indirect

Vector-borne- malaria, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis

Formites
 Zoonotic diseases – animal handling and feeding
practices (Mad cow disease, Avian Influenza)

6. Importance of Communicable
Diseases
 Significant burden of disease especially
in low and middle income countries
 Social impact
 Economic impact
 Potential for rapid spread
 Human security concerns

7. Communicable Diseases account
for a significant global disease
burden
 In 2005, CDs accounted for about 30%
of the global BoD and 60% of the BoD
in Africa.
 CDs typically affect LIC and MICs
disproportionately.

Account for 40% of the disease burden in low
and middle income countries
 Most communicable diseases are
preventable or treatable.

8. Communicable Disease Burden VariesCommunicable Disease Burden Varies
Widely Among ContinentsWidely Among Continents

9. Communicable disease burden in
Europe

10. Causes of Death Vary Greatly by CountryCauses of Death Vary Greatly by Country
Income LevelIncome Level
Age distribution of death in Denmark around 2005
Male Female
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
0 - 4
15 - 19
30 - 34
45 - 49
60 - 64
75 - 79
90 - 94
Agegroup
Pe rc ent of total deaths
Age dis tribution of death in Sie rra Leone around 2005
Male Female
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
0 - 4
15 - 19
30 - 34
45 - 49
60 - 64
75 - 79
90 - 94
Agegroup
Pe rcent of total of deaths

11. CDs have a significant social impact
 Disruption of family and social networks
 Child-headed households, social exclusion
 Widespread stigma and discrimination
 TB, HIV/AIDS, Leprosy
 Discrimination in employment, schools, migration
policies
 Orphans and vulnerable children
 Loss of primary care givers
 Susceptibility to exploitation and trafficking
 Interventions such as quarantine measures may
aggravate the social disruption

12. CDs have a significant economic
impact in affected countries
 At the macro level
 Reduction in revenue for the country (e.g. tourism)

Estimated cost of SARS epidemic to Asian countries: $20 billion
(2003) or $2 million per case.

Drop in international travel to affected countries by 50-70%

Malaria causes an average loss of 1.3% annual GDP in countries
with intense transmission

The plague outbreak in India cost the economy over $1 billion
from travel restrictions and embargoes
 At the household level
 Poorer households are disproportionately affected
 Substantial loss in productivity and income for the infirmed and
caregiver
 Catastrophic costs of treating illness

13. International boundaries are
disappearing
 Borders are not very effective at stopping
communicable diseases.
 With increasing globalization

interdependence of countries – more trade and
human/animal interactions
 The rise in international traffic and commerce
makes challenges even more daunting
 Other global issues affect or are affected by
communicable diseases.

climate change

migration

Change in biodiversity

14. Human Security concerns
 Potential magnitude and rapid spread of
outbreaks/pandemics. e.g. SARS outbreak
 No country or region can contain a full blown
outbreak of Avian influenza
 Bioterrorism and intentional outbreaks
 Anthrax, Small pox
 New and re-emerging diseases
 Ebola, TB (MDR-TB and XDR-TB), HPAI, Rift
valley fever.

15. Communicable Diseases

16. Tuberculosis
 2 billion people infected with microbes that cause TB.
 Not everyone develops active disease
 A person is infected every second globally
 22 countries account for 80% of TB cases.
 >50% cases in Asia, 28% in Africa (which also has
the highest per capita prevalence)
 In 2005, there were 8.8 million new TB cases; 1.6
million deaths from TB (about 4400 a day)
 Highly stigmatizing disease

17. Tuberculosis and HIV
 A third of those living with HIV are co-infected with
TB
 About 200,000 people with HIV die annually from TB.
 Most common opportunistic infection in Africa
 70% of TB patients are co-infected with HIV in some
countries in Africa
 Impact of HIV on TB
 TB is harder to diagnose in HIV-positive people.
 TB progresses faster in HIV-infected people.
 TB in HIV-positive people is almost certain to be fatal if
undiagnosed or left untreated.
 TB occurs earlier in the course of HIV infection than many
other opportunistic infections.

18. Global Prevalence of TB cases (WHO)

19. Tuberculosis

21. Tuberculosis Control
 Challenges for tuberculosis control
 MDR-TB - In most countries. About 450000 new cases annually.
 XDR-TB cases confirmed in South Africa.
 Weak health systems
 TB and HIV
 The Global Plan to Stop TB 2006-2015.
 an investment of US$ 56 billion, a three-fold increase from 2005.
The estimated funding gap is US$ 31 billion.
 Six step strategy: Expanding DOTS treatment; Health Systems
Strengthening; Engaging all care providers; Empowering patients
and communities; Addressing MDR TB, Supporting research

22. Malaria
 Every year, 500 million people become severely ill
with malaria

causes 30% of Low birth weight in newborns Globally.
 >1 million people die of malaria every year. One child
dies from it every 30 seconds
 40% of the world’s population is at risk of malaria.
Most cases and deaths occur in SSA.
 Malaria is the 9th
leading cause of death in LICs and
MICs

11% of childhood deaths worldwide attributable to malaria

SSA children account for 82% of malaria deaths worldwide

23. Annual Reported Malaria Cases by Country (WHO
2003)

24. Global malaria prevalence

25. Malaria Control
 Malaria control
 Early diagnosis and prompt treatment to cure patients and
reduce parasite reservoir
 Vector control:

Indoor residual spraying

Long lasting Insecticide treated bed nets
 Intermittent preventive treatment of pregnant women
 Challenges in malaria control
 Widespread resistance to conventional anti-malaria drugs
 Malaria and HIV
 Health Systems Constraints

Access to services

Coverage of prevention interventions

26. HIV/AIDS
 In 2005, 38.6 million people worldwide were
living with HIV, of which 24.7 million (two-
thirds) lived in SSA
 4.1 million people worldwide became newly
infected
 2.8 million people lost their lives to AIDS
 New infections occur predominantly among
the 15-24 age group.
 Previously unknown about 25 years ago. Has
affected over 60 million people so far.

27. HIV Co-infections
 Impact of TB on HIV
 TB considerably shortens the survival of people with
HIV/AIDS.
 TB kills up to half of all AIDS patients worldwide.
 TB bacteria accelerate the progress of AIDS infection in the
patient
 HIV and Malaria
 Diseases of poverty
 HIV infected adults are at risk of developing severe malaria
 Acute malaria episodes temporarily increase HIV viral load
 Adults with low CD4 count more susceptible to treatment
failure

28. Global HIV Burden

29. HIV/AIDS
 Interventions depend on
 Epidemiology – mode of transmission, age group
 Stage of epidemic –concentrated vs. generalized
 Elements of an effective intervention

Strong political support and enabling environment.

Linking prevention to care and access to care and treatment

Integrate it into poverty reduction and address gender inequality

Effective monitoring and evaluation

Strengthening the health system and Multisectoral approaches
 Challenges in prevention and scaling up treatment globally include

Constraints to access to care and treatment

Stigma and discrimination

Inadequate prevention measures.

Co-infections (TB, Malaria)

30. Avian Influenza
 Seasonal influenza causes severe
illness in 3-5 million people and 250000
– 500000 deaths yearly
 1st
H5N1 avian influenza case in Hong
Kong in 1997.
 By October 2007 – 331 human cases,
202 deaths.

31. Avian Influenza
 Control depends on the phase of the epidemic
 Pre-Pandemic Phase

Reduce opportunity for human infection

Strengthen early warning system
 Emergence of Pandemic virus

Contain and/or delay the spread at source
 Pandemic Declared

Reduce mortality, morbidity and social disruption

Conduct research to guide response measures
 Antiviral medications – Oseltamivir, Amantadine
 Vaccine – still experimental under development.

Can only be produced in significant quantity after an outbreak

32. Confirmed human cases of HPAI

33. Migratory pathway for birds and
Avian influenza

34. Approaches to Interventions
 Personal Responsibility and action
 Utilitarian Approaches – “Greatest good
for the greatest number”
 Including non Health Systems
Interventions.
 Regulations and Laws
 Partnerships and Collaboration
 Enlightened Self Interest

35. Personal Responsibility and
action
 Improved hygiene and sanitation
 Hand washing, proper waste disposal, food
preparation and handling.
 Information, education and behavior change
 Changing harmful household practices
 Livestock handling, knowledge about contagion
 Cultural and social norms
 Self reporting of illnesses and compliance
with interventions and treatment.

36. Utilitarian Approaches – “Greatest good
for the greatest number”
 Reliance on personal responsibility

not always the optimal option given different knowledge levels
and values.

Public good nature of the interventions
 Social Isolation and Quarantine measures

Home treatment; Isolation
 Mass vaccination programs and campaigns

Polio, small pox, DPT, Hepatitis, Yellow fever
 Mass treatment programs –

Onchocerciasis, de-worming programs.
 For some CDs, intervention in other sectors is
required

Environmental health – elimination of breeding sites, spraying

Agricultural practices such as poultry handling and exposure to
soil pathogens during farming.

37. Regulations and Laws
 National response remains the bedrock of intervention

National laws and capacities vary.
 International Regulations and laws introduced

1851 – International Sanitary regulations in Europe following
cholera outbreak

1951- international sanitary regulation by WHO.

1969- Replaced by the International Health regulation
 Minor changes in 1973 and 1981
 cholera, plague, yellow fever, smallpox, relapsing fever and typhus

2005 – Revised International Health Regulation
 Challenge of enforceability of international agreements.

38. Regulation and laws – WHO
2005 International health
regulation
 IHR (2005) is a legally binding agreement among
member states of WHO to cooperate on a set of
defined areas of public health importance.
 Arrived at by consensus of all member countries of
WHO, with clear arbitration mechanisms
 Its elements include
 Notification:
 National IHR Focal Points and WHO IHR Contact Points
 Requirements for national core capacities
 Recommended measures
 External advice regarding the IHR (2005)

39. A paradigm shift - Enlightened
Self interest
 Communicable diseases have no borders.

Predominantly affect the poor, and poor countries

Also affect richer households and countries.
 Interventions are non-rival, non-exclusive and have
positive externalities.

Elimination and control of certain communicable diseases
increases global health security.

Limited financial incentives for the market to drive needed
innovation in research and drug development
 Mismatch between global health need and health
spending
 Global health security is therefore inextricably tied to
the effective control of CDs in developing world.

40. Global Mismatch Between DiseaseGlobal Mismatch Between Disease
Burden and Health SpendingBurden and Health Spending

41. Global Mismatch Between DiseaseGlobal Mismatch Between Disease
Burden and Health SpendingBurden and Health Spending

42. Thank You.