Dear friends
It is beneficial for the students of diploma, graduates and masters. It contains complete radiographic views of chest radiography-routine &special. I think that it will helpful for your study and practical knowledge. You can read through this ppt and apply on your practice and get better images according this way. Thanks
Dear friends
It is beneficial for the students of diploma, graduates and masters. It contains complete radiographic views of soft tissue neck radiography-routine &special. I think that it will helpful for your study and practical knowledge. You can read through this ppt and apply on your practice and get better images according this way. Thanks
Dear friends
It is beneficial for the students of diploma, graduates and masters. It contains complete radiographic views of soft tissue neck radiography-routine &special. I think that it will helpful for your study and practical knowledge. You can read through this ppt and apply on your practice and get better images according this way. Thanks
HERE IT REVIWES ABOUT THE X RAY OF CHEST IN DIFFERENT VIEWS OTHER THAN THE SPECIAL VIEWS OF CHEST.IT SHOWS THE ANATOMY OF CHEST IMPORTANCE OF PA CHEST X RAY OVER AP.DIFFERNEC BETTWEEN X RAY PA AND AP VIEW
Basic Chest X ray Views - AP, PA & Lateral etc . pptxDr Abna J
PA PROJECTION
Sit or stand upright.
Positioned to minimize magnification of the anteriorly positioned heart and consequent obscuration of the lungs.
Make sure the patient is standing straight and is equally distributing the weight of the body on both feet.
The upright position is preferred for the following reasons: It prevents engorgement (an excess of blood) of pulmonary vessels.
It allows full expansion of the lungs
To visualize possible air and fluid levels in the chest.
An upright chest film is preferred over an upright abdominal film for the diagnosis of pneumoperitoneum (free air in the abdominal cavity).
Ask the patient to move the shoulders forward and downward, so that the chest wall and both shoulders are in contact with the cassette. This helps to carry the clavicles below the lung apices.
It is very important to minimize breast shadows.
Ask the patient to pull the breasts upward and laterally (outwards), then remove her hands as she leans against the cassette holder to keep them in position.
Rotation
Even a small degree of rotation distorts the mediastinal borders, and the lung nearest the film will appear less translucent.
The following points should be stressed to obtain a true PA view (without rotation):
Ensure that the patient is standing evenly on both feet.
Both shoulders should be rolled forward and downward.
The chest radiograph should be well centred so that the medial ends of the clavicle are equidistant from the vertebral spinous processes at T4/5.
CENTRAL RAY
Over T7 vertebra
SID: 72 inches
Central ray
Film holder (image receptor) placement
The horizontal dimension of an average chest is greater than the vertical dimension.
This requires that a 14 x 17-inch film holder or image receptor (IR) be placed crosswise.
Or lengthwise depending on body type.
Collimation
The upper border of the illuminated field should be at the level of vertebra prominence (4 cm above the apex of lungs).
This will result in a lower collimation border of 1-2 inches below the costophrenic angle, if the central ray was correctly centred.
A general rule for average adult patients is to show a minimum of 10 ribs on a good PA chest radiograph.
Evaluation criteria for a good PA projection
Entire lung fields from apices to costophrenic angles should be clearly demonstrated.
No rotation. (both the right and left sternal ends of the clavicle will be the same distance from the center line of the spine.)
The direction of rotation can be determined by which sternal end of the clavicle is closest to the spine.
Trachea is visible in midline.
Scapula projected outside the lung fields.
Ten posterior ribs are visible above the diaphragm.
There is a sharp outline of the heart and diaphragm.
A faint shadow of the ribs and superior thoracic vertebrae is visible through the heart shadow.
Lung markings are visible from the hilum to the periphery of the lung.
Variations
An expiratory film may be helpful under some circumstances.
Transesophaheal echo cardiography, the basic views. It is a diagnostic procedure to visualize the heart and have a better understanding of the structure and functions of the heart
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-AnatomyDr.Santosh Atreya
Learn Chest X-Ray With Its Normal Positioning & Radio-Anatomy..For some image description please go through the text book "David Sutton" because i have described these image during my presentation Verbally..There are many animations used inside this presentation so to see all the pictures which are placed layer by layer with the help of animations you simple need to download this presentation first.... Thanx.
in this tutorial i am speaking about chest x-ray quality that include :
1- Inclusion
2- inspiration/lung
3- volume
4- projection
5- penetration
6- Rotation
7- artifact
i try to make it easy and simple for medical students and junior doctors to help them in clinical life.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
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Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. CHEST RADIOGRAPHY
There are many type of views of chest radiography
which are divided in Routine and Special
radiographs –
Routine – PA Erect , Lateral
SPECIAL – Supine AP, Oblique (Ant. & Post.),
Apicogram (AP), AP Lordotic, Lateral Decubitus
4. CHEST PA (ROUTINE)
Position Of the Patient
• Pt. is asked to stand facing an
upright cassette holder.
• Midline of the body should be
in the midline of the cassette.
• Ask the pt. to rotate shoulder
forward, flex the elbows and
put the wrist on hips.
• Upper border of cassette
should be 2-3cm above the
shoulder joint.
5. CHEST PA (ROUTINE)
Central Ray
• The central ray is directed
horizontally to the level of
T5 vertebra.
• Stop breathing after deep
inhalation for exposure.
6. CHEST PA (ROUTINE)
Figure
• Postero anterior (PA) chest
projection position, pt. against
chest board
7. CHEST PA (ROUTINE)
Exposure chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or
14”*17”)
• Source to Image
Receptor Distance
(SID) – 180cm or 6ft.
• Grid – No
• mA station – 200
• kV = 55 – 60
• mAs = 16 – 20
• Exposure Timer =
mAs/mA = 20/200 =
0.1sec.
10. CHEST PA (ROUTINE)
It is used to evaluate the lungs, heart and chest wall.
The PA view is frequently used to aid in diagnosing a
range of acute and chronic conditions involving all
organs of the thoracic cavity.
It may be used for the diagnose of fever, cough, TB,
asthma, chest pain, pleural effusion, Pneumo-thorax
etc.
17. Cardio – Thoracic Ratio (CTR)
The method of determining the CTR –
The cardiothoracic ratio is measured on only a PA chest x-ray.
The CTR is determined on the basis of the ratio of the transverse heart
dimension [A] to the transverse dimension of the chest (internal ribs) [B]
measured on the radiograph in the chest PA projection: CTR = A/B.
A normal measurement is 0.42-0.50.
A CTR > 0.5 (or > 50%) is considered abnormal. In radiology reports, terms
like “cardiomegaly” or “increased heart size” are commonly used to describe
an increased CTR.
A small cardiothoracic ratio (CTR) is defined as <42%/0.42 when assessed on a
PA chest radiograph, and is often called small heart syndrome. A
pathologically-small heart is also known as microcardia. It can be due
to/associated with a number of entities: adrenal insufficiency, e.g. Addison
disease.
20. CHEST LATERAL (ROUTINE)
Position Of the Patient
• Pt. is asked to stand in lateral erect
position in front of upright cassette.
• Both the arms are elevated upward
and forearms are resting on the
head.
• Mid axillary line of the body should
be in the center of the cassette.
• Cassette should be placed 2-3cm
above the shoulder joint.
21. CHEST LATERAL (ROUTINE)
Central Ray
• The central ray is directed horizontally to the level of T5 vertebra.
• Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure
22. CHEST LATERAL (ROUTINE)
Exposure chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or
14”*17”)
• Source to Image Receptor
Distance (SID) – 180cm or
6ft.
• Grid – yes
• mA station – 200
• kV = 65 – 70
• mAs = 30 – 40
• Exposure Timer = mAs/mA =
45/200 = 0.225sec.
25. CHEST LATERAL (ROUTINE)
The lateral chest view can be particularly useful in
assessing the retrosternal and retrocardiac
airspaces.
The lateral chest view examines the lungs, bony
thoracic cavity, mediastinum, and great vessels.
To see the position of pacemaker, side chest pain etc.
30. CHEST SUPINE AP (SPECIAL)
If the pt. have difficulty to sit or not able to stand
properly or pt. is in very serious condition and on
ventilator that time we can do the chest supine AP
view.
Generally AP view is taken to see the fractures of
ribs and effective for the patient of ICUs.
31. CHEST SUPINE AP (SPECIAL)
Position of the Patient
• Ask the pt. lie down in the
supine position.
• Palm of the both hand should
be pronate and elbow should
be away from the body.
• Midline of the body is in the
midline of the cassette.
• Place the cassette on the
Bucky and 2cm above the
shoulder region.
32. CHEST SUPINE AP (SPECIAL)
Central Ray
• The central ray is directed vertically to the level of T5 vertebra.
• Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure.
33. CHEST SUPINE AP (SPECIAL)
Exposure chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or 14”*17”)
• Source to Image Receptor
Distance (SID) – 100cm
• Grid – yes
• mA station – 200
• kV = 55 – 60
• mAs = 12 – 16
• Exposure Timer = mAs/mA =
12/200 = 0.06sec.
37. CHEST APICOGRAM AP
To see the apices of chest.
To see the region under clavicle bone.
To remove superimposition of clavicle over
apex.
For the diagnosis of the Tuberculosis (TB).
38. CHEST APICOGRAM AP
Position of the patient
Patient stands in AP position before upright
cassette.
Place the cassette 3 – 4 cm above the shoulder.
Patient is asked to lean as much as he can
forward after resting the shoulder on the
cassette (about 1 to 1.5 feet ahead)
40. CHEST APICOGRAM AP
Central Ray
• The central ray is directed horizontally with tube angle
30 degree toward head at the level of mid sternum or
xiphi sternum.
• Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure.
41. CHEST APICOGRAM AP
Exposure Chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or 14”*17”)
• Source to Image Receptor Distance (SID) – 150cm
• Grid – No
• mA station – 200
• kV = 50 – 60
• mAs = 16 – 20
• Exposure Timer = mAs/mA = 20/200 = 0.1sec.
47. CHEST LORDOTIC AP
The view especially useful to demonstrate
spontaneous pneumothorax, emphysema and
collapse due to an inhaled foreign body.
The view also demonstrates right middle lobe
collapse or interlobar effusion on right side.
48. FOREIGN BODY
A foreign body is something that is stuck inside you
but isn't supposed to be there. You may inhale or
swallow a foreign body, or you may get one from an
injury to almost any part of your body.
Foreign bodies are more common in small children,
who sometimes stick things in their mouths, ears, and
noses.
50. EMPHYSEMA
Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of
breath. In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the
lungs (alveoli) are damaged.
52. CHEST LORDOTIC AP
Position of the patient
Patient stands in AP position before upright cassette.
Place the cassette 3 – 4 cm above the shoulder.
Patient is asked to lean as much as he can forward
after resting the shoulder on the cassette (about 1 to
1.5 feet ahead)
53. CHEST LORDOTIC AP
Central Ray
• The central ray is directed horizontally at the level
of mid sternum or xiphi sternum.
• Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure.
54. CHEST LORDOTIC AP
Exposure Chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or 14”*17”)
• Source to Image Receptor Distance (SID) – 180cm
• Grid – No
• mA station – 200
• kV = 55 – 60
• mAs = 16 – 20
• Exposure Timer = mAs/mA = 20/200 = 0.1sec.
59. LATERAL DECUBITUS
The projection is called a right lateral decubitus if the
patient is lying on the right side and a left lateral
decubitus if the patient is lying on the left side.
A lateral decubitus projection can be obtained in
anteroposterior (AP) or posteroanterior (PA) view; however,
the AP view is more commonly used.
To demonstrate the Pleural effusion.
To diagnose the Lung cancer
To demonstrate Fluid or air collection around the lungs.
60. LATERAL DECUBITUS
Position of the patient
The patient is lying either left lateral or right lateral on
trolley (x-ray table).
Note – when investing pleural effusion the side of interest
should be down.
The detector is placed landscape, posterior to the patient
running parallel with the long axis of thorax (in the same
position as AP chest).
Patient hand should be raised to avoid superimposing on
the region of interest; legs may be flexed for balance.
Let the patient lie in the same position for few minutes (5
min) to allow the fluid trickle down in dependent part of
chest.
61. LATERAL DECUBITUS
Central ray
The central ray is directed horizontally to mid
sagittal plane – xiphi sternum).
Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure.
62. LATERAL DECUBITUS
Exposure Chart
(Film size- 12”*15” or 14”*17”)
• Source to Image Receptor Distance (SID) – 180cm
• Grid – No
• mA station – 200
• kV = 55 – 60
• mAs = 20 – 25
• Exposure Timer = mAs/mA = 20/200 = 0.1sec.
67. CHEST OBLIQUE
Generally, two types of oblique view of chest are obtained
Anterior Oblique
Right Anterior Oblique
Left Anterior Oblique
Posterior Oblique
Right Posterior Oblique
Left Posterior Oblique
Oblique views are prescribed for any type of chest
pathology which are not clear in PA view.
To see the ribs fractures
To see the apical regions (upper ribs)
68. ANTERIOR OBLIQUE (PA)
Position of the patient –
Patient is asked to stand in front of upright cassette
holder in PA position.
Turn the patient 45-degree oblique (L/R).
If the left side is near to the cassette raise the right hand
above head or place on the cassette.
Place the left hand on the left hip.
Upper border of cassette should be 2 – 3 cm above the
shoulder joint.
69. ANTERIOR OBLIQUE
Central ray –
• The central ray is directed horizontally at the level of T5.
• Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure.
72. POSTERIOR OBLIQUE (AP)
Patient positioning –
Patient is asked to stand in front of upright cassette
holder in AP position.
Patient is made oblique position.
45-degree angle is made between cassette and
unaffected side is way from the cassette.
Affect side hand should remain parallel to the body
and unaffected side hand should be over the head.
No movement in the patient during the exposure.
73. POSTERIOR OBLIQUE (AP)
Central ray –
It is directed horizontal at the xiphoid process.
Stop breathing after deep inhalation for exposure