The document discusses various states of consciousness and related topics including circadian rhythms regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, stages of sleep as measured by EEG waves, functions of sleep, individual differences in sleep needs, common sleep disorders, dreams and their relation to REM sleep, hypnosis and its effects on memory, meditation techniques, properties of psychoactive drugs including depressants, opiates, stimulants and psychedelics, and areas of the brain affected by fetal alcohol syndrome.

1. Consciousness and Its Variations

2. Consciousness Described as a stream or river by William James Introspection tried to capture the structure of consciousness Modern study includes roles of psychological, physiological, social, and cultural influences

3. Circadian Rhythm Any rhythmic change that continues at close to a 24-hour cycle in the absence of 24-hour cues body temperature cortisol secretion sleep and wakefulness In the absence of time cues, the cycle period will become somewhat longer than 24 hours

5. The Body’s Clock Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that governs the timing of circadian rhythms Melatonin—hormone of the pineal gland that produces sleepiness Bright light decreases production of melatonin; decreased light increases melatonin

6. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Electrodes placed on the scalp provide a gross record of the electrical activity of the brain EEG recordings are a rough index of psychological states

7. EEG Waves of Wakefulness Awake, but non-attentive: large, regular alpha waves Awake and attentive: low amplitude, fast, irregular beta waves 1 second Alpha waves Awake, nonattentive 1 second Beta waves Awake, attentive

8. Stages of Sleep Awake but sleepy--relaxed. alpha waves seen in EEG Stage 1 NREM-- brief transition stage when first falling asleep--theta waves Hypnogogic hallucinations--vivid sensory phenomena during onset of sleep

9. Stages of Sleep Stage 2 NREM--characterized by sleep spindles--brief spurts of activity Stages 3 and 4 NREM (slow-wave sleep): successively deeper stages of sleep Characterized by an increasing percentage of slow, irregular, high-amplitude delta waves Stage 4 NREM is very deep sleep

10. Stages of Sleep Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100 minutes of total sleep time, sleep lightens, returns through stages 3 and 2 REM sleep emerges, characterized by EEG patterns that resemble beta waves of alert wakefulness muscles most relaxed rapid eye movements occur dreams occur Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s sleep; less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent in REM

11. The 90-Minute Cycles of Sleep

12. Sleep Changes Throughout Life Changes in quality and quantity are apparent Amount of time in deep (slow wave) and REM sleep decreases with age

13. Functions of Sleep Restoration theory—body wears out during the day and sleep is necessary to put it back in shape Adaptive theory—sleep emerged in evolution to preserve energy and protect during the time of day when there is considerable danger

14. Sleep Deprivation Microsleep--episodes lasting only a few seconds REM rebound--deprivation of REM sleep causes increase in time spent in REM sleep to “catch up” NREM rebound--catching up on Stages 3 and 4 sleep

15. Individual Differences in Sleep Drive Some individuals need more and some less than the typical 8 hours per night Nonsomniacs—sleep far less than most, but do not feel tired during the day Insomniacs—have a normal desire for sleep, but are unable to and feel tired during the day

16. Sleep Disorders Insomnia—inability to fall asleep or stay asleep Night terrors—sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) that occur during slow-wave sleep Narcolepsy—overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up

17. Sleep Disorders Restless Legs Syndrome--RLS unpleasant sensations in lower legs and urge to move legs disrupts sleep. Sleep apnea—failure to breathe when asleep REM sleep behavior disorder—sleeper acts out his or her dreams

18. Dreams and REM Sleep True dream—vivid, detailed dreams consisting of sensory and motor sensations experienced during REM Sleep thinking—lacks vivid sensory and motor sensations, is more similar to daytime thinking, and occurs during slow-wave sleep

19. Brain and REM Sleep Active areas during REM--amygdala and hippocampus Inactive areas during REM--frontal lobes and primary visual cortex REM sleep plays a role in memory consolidation

20. Significance of Dreams Psychoanalytic Interpretation Activation Synthesis Model

21. Psychoanalytic Interpretation Manifest content—elements of the dream that are consciously experienced and remembered Latent content—the unconscious wishes that are concealed in the manifest content Dreams as “wish fulfillments”

22. Activation Synthesis Model Brain activity during sleep produces dream images (activation) which are combined by the brain into a dream story (synthesis). Meaning is to be found by analyzing the way the dreamer makes sense of the progression of chaotic dream images.

23. Hypnosis State of awareness Highly focused attention Increased responsiveness to suggestion Vivid imagery Willingness to accept distortions of logic Alteration of sensation and perception

25. Hypnosis and Memory Posthypnotic suggestion--during hypnosis a suggestion is made for the person to carry out some behavior after hypnosis is over Posthypnotic amnesia--inability to remember specific information because of a posthypnotic suggestion Hypermnesia--enhancement of memory because of posthypnotic suggestion

26. Meditation Sustained concentration that focuses attention and heightens awareness Lowered physiological arousal decreased heart rate decreased BP Predominance of alpha brain waves

27. Meditation Techniques Concentration techniques--control attention by focusing awareness on a visual image, word, or phrase Opening-up techniques--control attention by focusing on the “here and now”

28. Psychoactive Drugs Depressants—inhibit brain activity Opiates—produce pain relief and euphoria Stimulants—increase brain activity Psychedelics—distort sensory perceptions

29. Common Properties Physical dependence Tolerance Withdrawal symptoms Drug rebound effect

30. Drug Abuse Recurrent drug use that results in disruption of academic, social, or occupational functioning or in legal or psychological problems

31. Depressants Alcohol—CNS depressant Barbiturates—induce sleep but can cause dependence and as a result serious withdrawal symptoms Tranquilizers—relieve anxiety but can be addictive Effects are additive

33. Areas of the brain that may be affected by FAS

34. Opiates Chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties, can be addictive Mimic the brain’s endorphins Heroin, methadone Percodan, Demerol

35. Stimulants Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Cocaine Stimulant induced psychosis

36. Psychedelics Create perceptual distortions Mescaline LSD Marijuana Flashback reactions and psychotic episodes

37. “ Club” Drugs Ecstasy (MDMA)—feelings of euphoria, increased well-being Side effects—dehydration, hyperthermia, tremor, rapid heartbeat Dissociative anesthetics—include PCP and Ketamine. Deaden pain, produce stupor or coma, and may induce hallucinations.