This document discusses various states of consciousness and related topics. It describes circadian rhythms and the body's biological clock in the hypothalamus. It outlines the stages of sleep from wakefulness to non-REM and REM sleep. Dreaming occurs during REM sleep. Sleep cycles and needs change throughout life. Other topics covered include meditation, hypnosis, psychoactive drugs, and sleep and consciousness disorders.

1. Consciousness and
Its Variations

2. Consciousness
• Described as a stream or river by William
James
• Introspection tried to capture the structure
of consciousness
• Modern study includes roles of
psychological, physiological, social, and
cultural influences

3. Circadian Rhythm
• Any rhythmic change that continues at close to
a 24-hour cycle in the absence of 24-hour cues
– body temperature
– cortisol secretion
– sleep and wakefulness
• In the absence of time cues, the cycle period
will become somewhat longer than 24 hours

4. The Body’s Clock
• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—cluster of
neurons in the hypothalamus that governs
the timing of circadian rhythms
• Melatonin—hormone of the pineal gland
that produces sleepiness
• Bright light decreases production of
melatonin; decreased light increases
melatonin

5. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Electrodes placed
on the scalp provide
a gross record of the
electrical activity of
the brain
• EEG recordings are
a rough index of
psychological states

6. EEG Waves of Wakefulness
• Awake, but
non-attentive:
large, regular
alpha waves
1 second
Alpha waves
Awake, nonattentive
1 second
Beta waves
Awake, attentive
• Awake and
attentive: low
amplitude, fast,
irregular beta
waves

7. Stages of Sleep
• Awake but sleepy--relaxed. alpha waves seen
in EEG
• Hypnogogic hallucinations--vivid sensory
phenomena during onset of sleep
• Stage 1 NREM-- brief transition stage when
first falling asleep--theta waves

8. Stages of Sleep
• Stage 2 NREM--characterized by sleep
spindles--brief spurts of activity
• Stages 3 and 4 NREM (slow-wave sleep):
successively deeper stages of sleep
• Characterized by an increasing percentage
of slow, irregular, high-amplitude delta
waves
• Stage 4 NREM is very deep sleep

9. Stages of Sleep
• Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100
minutes of total sleep time, sleep lightens, returns
through stages 3 and 2
• REM sleep emerges, characterized by EEG patterns
that resemble beta waves of alert wakefulness
– muscles most relaxed
– rapid eye movements occur
– dreams occur
• Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s
sleep; less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent
in REM

10. The 90-Minute Cycles of Sleep

11. Sleep Changes Throughout Life
• Changes in quality and quantity are
apparent
• Amount of time in deep (slow wave) and
REM sleep decreases with age

12. Functions of Sleep
• Restoration theory—body wears out during
the day and sleep is necessary to put it back
in shape
• Adaptive theory—sleep emerged in
evolution to preserve energy and protect
during the time of day when there is
considerable danger

13. Sleep Deprivation
• Microsleep--episodes lasting only a few
seconds
• REM rebound--deprivation of REM sleep
causes increase in time spent in REM
sleep to “catch up”
• NREM rebound--catching up on Stages 3
and 4 sleep

14. Individual Differences
in Sleep Drive
• Some individuals need more and some
less than the typical 8 hours per night
• Nonsomniacs—sleep far less than most,
but do not feel tired during the day
• Insomniacs—have a normal desire for
sleep, but are unable to and feel tired
during the day

15. Sleep Disorders
• Insomnia—inability to fall asleep or stay
asleep
• Night terrors—sudden arousal from sleep and
intense fear accompanied by physiological
reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration)
that occur during slow-wave sleep
• Narcolepsy—overpowering urge to fall asleep
that may occur while talking or standing up

16. Sleep Disorders
• Restless Legs Syndrome--RLS unpleasant
sensations in lower legs and urge to move
legs disrupts sleep.
• Sleep apnea—failure to breathe when asleep
• REM sleep behavior disorder—sleeper acts
out his or her dreams

17. Dreams and REM Sleep
• True dream—vivid, detailed dreams
consisting of sensory and motor sensations
experienced during REM
• Sleep thinking—lacks vivid sensory and
motor sensations, is more similar to daytime
thinking, and occurs during slow-wave
sleep

18. Brain and REM Sleep
• Active areas during REM--amygdala and
hippocampus
• Inactive areas during REM--frontal lobes
and primary visual cortex
• REM sleep plays a role in memory
consolidation

19. Significance of Dreams
• Psychoanalytic Interpretation
• Activation Synthesis Model

20. Psychoanalytic Interpretation
• Manifest content—elements of the dream
that are consciously experienced and
remembered
• Latent content—the unconscious wishes
that are concealed in the manifest content
• Dreams as “wish fulfillments”

21. Activation Synthesis Model
• Brain activity during sleep produces dream
images (activation) which are combined by
the brain into a dream story (synthesis).
Meaning is to be found by analyzing the
way the dreamer makes sense of the
progression of chaotic dream images.

22. Hypnosis
• State of awareness
• Highly focused attention
• Increased responsiveness to suggestion
• Vivid imagery
• Willingness to accept distortions of
logic
• Alteration of sensation and perception

24. Hypnosis and Memory
• Posthypnotic suggestion--during hypnosis a
suggestion is made for the person to carry
out some behavior after hypnosis is over
• Posthypnotic amnesia--inability to
remember specific information because of a
posthypnotic suggestion
• Hypermnesia--enhancement of memory
because of posthypnotic suggestion

25. Meditation
• Sustained concentration that focuses
attention and heightens awareness
• Lowered physiological arousal
– decreased heart rate
– decreased BP
• Predominance of alpha brain waves

26. Meditation Techniques
• Concentration techniques--control attention
by focusing awareness on a visual image,
word, or phrase
• Opening-up techniques--control attention by
focusing on the “here and now”

27. Psychoactive Drugs
• Depressants—inhibit brain activity
• Opiates—produce pain relief and euphoria
• Stimulants—increase brain activity
• Psychedelics—distort sensory perceptions

28. Common Properties
• Physical dependence
• Tolerance
• Withdrawal symptoms
• Drug rebound effect

29. Drug Abuse
Recurrent drug use that results in
disruption of academic, social, or
occupational functioning or in
legal or psychological problems

30. Depressants
• Alcohol—CNS depressant
• Barbiturates—induce sleep but can
cause dependence and as a result
serious withdrawal symptoms
• Tranquilizers—relieve anxiety but can
be addictive
• Effects are additive

32. Areas of the brain that may be affected by FAS

33. Opiates
Chemically similar to morphine and have
strong pain-relieving properties, can be
addictive
• Mimic the brain’s endorphins
• Heroin, methadone
• Percodan, Demerol

34. Stimulants
• Caffeine
• Nicotine
• Amphetamines
• Cocaine
• Stimulant induced psychosis

35. Psychedelics
• Create perceptual distortions
• Mescaline
• LSD
• Marijuana
• Flashback reactions and psychotic
episodes

36. “Club” Drugs
• Ecstasy (MDMA)—feelings of euphoria,
increased well-being
• Side effects—dehydration, hyperthermia,
tremor, rapid heartbeat
• Dissociative anesthetics—include PCP and
Ketamine. Deaden pain, produce stupor or
coma, and may induce hallucinations.