Consciousness
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Psychoactive drugs influence perceptions, emotions, and behavior by acting on the central nervous system (Feldman, 2008). Stimulants like cocaine increase alertness while depressants like alcohol and barbiturates slow down the nervous system. Tolerance develops with repeated use of drugs, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effects. Dependence occurs when the body adapts to functioning with the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms without it.
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Consciousness
- 2. Choose 1 topic and write a Journal Entry about it 1. An article on Lucid Dreaming 2. An article on Power Nap (“Siesta Time: Power Napping” written for The Economist, 2002) 3. Hypnosis as a part of Therapy Process 4. Internet use brings you into an altered state of consciousness 5. Unconscious Thought Do you believe that the unconscious exists? Do you believe that the unconscious influences your behavior? Should the concept of the unconscious continue to be studied by psychologists?
- 3. Are you surprised by how much time you spend online each day? Are you surprised by how much time you spend online in one sitting? Does it feel like it is that much time as you are online? Do you want to decrease your daily time online? Why or why not? Do you think you are ever going with the flow when you are online? Do you think that Internet use can be considered an altered state of consciousness? Why or why not?
- 4. Learning Outcomes Define consciousness. Explain the nature of sleep and various sleep disorders. Learning Outcomes
- 5. Learning Outcomes Explain various uses of hypnosis, forms of medication, and biofeedback techniques in altering consciousness. Explain the concepts of substance abuse; identify categories of drugs and how they alter consciousness. Learning Outcomes
- 6. What is Consciousness?What is Consciousness?
- 7. Consciousness Sensory Awareness Selective Attention Direct Inner Awareness Sense of Self Waking State
- 8. Consciousness The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment Waking consciousness Altered states of consciousness Ryan McVay/Getty Images
- 9. Preconscious, Unconscious, Nonconscious Preconscious Not currently in awareness, but readily available Unconscious Unavailable to awareness under most circumstances Nonconscious Bodily processes that can not be experienced through sensory awareness
- 10. Sleep and DreamsSleep and Dreams
- 11. Biological and Circadian Rhythms Circadian rhythm is a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of Earth’s rotation Cycle of wakefulness and sleep
- 12. The Stages of Sleep Using EEG records, sleep stages are recorded by different brain waves Nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep First four stages of sleep Stage 1 is lightest; Stage 4 is deepest Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
- 13. Stages of Sleep Stage 1 The stage of transition between wakefulness and sleep that is characterized by relatively rapid, low-voltage brain waves
- 14. The Stages of Sleep Stage 1 Slow down from alpha waves to theta waves Hypnagogic state may be experienced
- 15. Stage 2 – Characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern and momentary interruptions of sharply pointed spiky waves called sleep spindles
- 16. Stages of Sleep Stage 3 Brain waves become slower with an appearance of higher peaks and lower valleys in the wave pattern
- 17. Stage 4 Deepest stage of sleep where people are least responsive to outside stimuli and the wave patterns are more slower and regular Delta waves
- 18. Sleep Cycles 90-100 minutes per cycle Sleep patterns change during the night. Typical night 60% - Stages 1 & 2 sleep 20% - Stages 3 & 4 sleep 20% - REM sleep
- 19. Sleep Cycles
- 20. The Stages of Sleep REM sleep Rapid eye movements Paradoxical sleep When awakened in REM sleep, 80% report dreams
- 21. Typical Night of Sleep Tend to undergo 5 cycles through the stages of sleep First time in stage 4 sleep is usually the longest Sleep becomes lighter as the night wears on
- 22. REM sleep becomes longer as night wears on Last REM period may be about 30 minutes
- 23. Sleep Cycles
- 24. Functions of Sleep Rejuvenates the body Helps us recover from stress Helps us consolidate learning and memories Problem-solving May promote development of infants’ brains
- 25. Amount of Sleep Amount of sleep needed may be partly genetically determined Additional sleep is needed when you are under stress As you age, you require less sleep
- 26. Sleep, Learning and Memory Individuals deprived of REM sleep Learn more slowly Forget what they have learned quicker Show REM rebound
- 27. Dreams Cognitive activity that occurs while you are sleeping Most vivid during REM sleep May dream in color or black and white
- 28. Pleasant dream or nightmare Do blind people dream?
- 29. Why Do We Dream What We Dream? Memories of the day Traumatic events – Nightmares Reflections of unconscious desires – Freud
- 30. What does PET Scan reveal limbic and paralimbic regions (associated with emotion & motivation) -active during REM sleep
- 31. Association areas of prefrontal cortex (regions that control logical analysis & attention) inactive during REM Source: Feldman
- 32. Activation-Synthesis Model of Dreaming Acetylcholine and the pons stimulate responses that lead to dreaming Reticular activation system stimulates parts of the cortex involved in memory part of the brain involved in attention, sleep, and arousal Cortex then synthesizes sources of stimulation into dreams (most likely dream of recent events
- 34. Deep Sleep Disorders Occur in stage 3 or 4 sleep More common in children Sleep Terrors Bed-Wetting Sleepwalking
- 35. Altering ConsciousnessAltering Consciousness Through Hypnosis,Through Hypnosis, Meditation, and BiofeedbackMeditation, and Biofeedback
- 36. Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible and behave as though in a trance Used in medical procedures Hypnotic trance Hypnotic suggestibility
- 37. Explaining the Effects of Hypnosis Role theory explains hypnotic events in the terms of the person’s ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized
- 38. Response set theory views that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist Positive response
- 39. VIDEO: Weight Loss Hypnosis
- 40. Meditation Focusing consciousness to alter relationship between the self and the environment Transcendental Meditation (TM) Far Eastern Meditation Use of mantras Relaxation response
- 41. Mindfulness Meditation (MM) Focus on the present moment Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
- 42. Biofeedback A system that provides information about a bodily function in order to gain some control over it Biofeedback training (BFT) helps combat stress, tension and anxiety Electromyograph (EMG) Monitors muscle tension
- 44. Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness Royalty-Free/CORBIS
- 45. Drug Use: The Highs And Lows of Consciousness Psychoactive drugs Influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior Jack Star/PhotoLink/Getty Images
- 46. Addictive drugs Produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user, and withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible
- 47. Substance Abuse and Dependence Substance abuse is repeated use of a substance despite impaired functioning Substance dependence is characterized by loss of control over use of the substance
- 48. Tolerance - habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects
- 49. Withdrawal symptoms - a characteristic cluster of symptoms that results from sudden decrease in an addictive drug’s level of usage
- 50. Psychological dependence signs include anxiety including shakiness, rapid pulse and sweating which can be mistaken for physiological dependence
- 51. Biological dependence the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function in its absence.
- 52. Delirium Tremens (DT’s) experienced by chronic alcoholics when they suddenly lower their intake of alcohol. (physiological) Symptoms include: heavy sweating Restlessness general disorientation terrifying hallucinations
- 53. Causes of Substance Abuse and Dependence Experimentation Reinforcement by peers or positive effects Avoidance of withdrawal effects Genetic predisposition toward physiological dependence
- 54. Stimulants: Drug Highs Affect the central nervous system by causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension Caffeine Nicotine Cocaine “crack” Amphetamines “speed” Jack Star/PhotoLink/Getty Images
- 55. Depressants: Drug Lows Impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly Alcohol (pain relief) - Rohypnol Tranquilizers (anxiety reduction) Ryan McVay/Getty Images
- 56. Barbiturates (sleeping pill) - produce a sense of relaxation - Deadly when combined with alcohol Nembutal Seconal Phenobarbital Depressants: Drug Lows
- 57. Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety Increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety Heroin Methadone Morphine Royalty-Free/CORBIS
- 58. Opiates Group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy Laboratory produced opioids Morphine, heroin, codeine, Demerol Major application is pain relief Provides a strong euphoric “rush”
- 59. Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs Drugs that are capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process Marijuana (THC active ingredient) MDMA (Ecstasy) LSD Royalty-Free/CORBIS
- 61. Psychoactive drugs influence a person’s perceptions, emotions, and behavior (Feldman, 2008)
- 62. Depressants
- 63. Stimulants
- 64. Tolerance habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects
- 65. Alcohol Most abused drug Binge drinking What about Filipino adolescents? Alcohol ads
- 66. Alcohol Depressant Slows activity of central nervous system Effects Lowers inhibitions Impairs cognitive functioning and coordination
- 67. Alcohol Men more likely to become alcoholic than women Alcohol has stronger effect on women Biological constraints Can lead to physiological dependence
- 68. Opiates Group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy Laboratory produced opioids Morphine, heroin, codeine, Demerol Major application is pain relief Provides a strong euphoric “rush”
- 69. Can lead to dependence: stops the production of endorphins Heroin was once used as a cure for addiction to morphine Methadone (slower) is used to treat dependence on heroin
- 70. Barbiturates Depressants with medical uses Relaxation, pain management, treatment of epilepsy, high blood pressure and insomnia Produces mild euphoria Rapidly lead to dependence Dangerous to mix barbiturates and alcohol
- 71. Stimulants Amphetamines Taken in high doses produces euphoric feeling May cause insomnia, restlessness, psychotic symptoms and a “crash” upon withdrawal
- 72. Stimulants Tolerance develops quickly and users may become dependent Ritalin Common treatment for hyperactive children (immature cerebral cortex) Decrease aggression
- 73. Stimulants Cocaine Stimulant that produces euphoric feelings Physical dangers Sudden rises in blood pressure, decreased oxygen supply to the heart, quickened heart rate
- 74. Overdose Can cause restlessness and insomnia, tremors, headaches, nausea, convulsions, hallucinations, delusions, cardiorespiratory collapse
- 75. How Cocaine Produces Euphoria and Why People “Crash”
- 76. LSD Synthetic hallucinogen Produces vivid, colorful hallucination
Editor's Notes
- Truth or Fiction? We act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams. False. Truth or Fiction? Insomnia can be caused by trying too hard to fall asleep. True. Truth or Fiction? It is dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker. False. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
- Truth or Fiction? You can be hypnotized against your will. False. Truth or Fiction? You can teach a rat to raise or lower its heart rate. True. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
- Truth or Fiction? Many health professionals calm down hyperactive children by giving them a stimulant. True. Truth or Fiction? Coca-Cola once “added life” to its signature drink through the use of a powerful – but now illegal – stimulant. True. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
- Truth or Fiction? The number of people who die from smoking-related causes is greater than the number lost to motor vehicle accidents, abuse of alcohol and all other drugs, suicide, homicide, and AIDS combined. True. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
- LO1 Define consciousness.
- selective attention – the focus of consciousness on a particular stimulus. direct inner awareness – knowledge of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and memories
- Consciousness is our subjective understanding of both the environment around us and our private internal world, unobservable to outsiders. Consciousness is generally divided into two broad states: waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness, although the boundary between the two types is not always clear. In waking consciousness, we are awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions. In more active states of waking consciousness, we systematically carry out mental activity, focusing our thoughts and absorbing the world around us. In more passive states of waking consciousness, thoughts and images come to us more spontaneously; we may drift from one thought to another (Velmans, 2000). When we enter an altered state of consciousness, our mental state differs significantly from waking consciousness. Some altered states of consciousness occur naturally, such as sleeping and dreaming. Others, such as drug use and hypnosis, are triggered by deliberate attempts to alter one’s state of consciousness. contemporary psychologists reject the view that the study of consciousness is unsuitable for the field of psychology. Instead, they argue that several approaches permit the scientific study of consciousness. For example, biopsychologists can measure brain wave patterns under conditions of consciousness ranging from sleep to waking to hypnotic trances. Moreover, new understanding of the chemistry of drugs such as marijuana and alcohol has provided insights into the way they produce their pleasurable—as well as adverse—effects (Shear, 1997; Damasio, 1999; Sommerhof, 2000).
- preconscious – in psychodynamic theory, descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one’s attention. unconscious – in psychodynamic theory, descriptive of ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness; also; without consciousness nonconscious – descriptive of bodily processes such as growing hair, of which we cannot become conscious. we may “recognize” that our hair is growing but cannot directly experience the biological process.
- LO2 Explain the nature of sleep and various sleep disorders.
- circadian rhythm – a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of Earth’s rotation
- nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep – stages of sleep 1 through 4 rapid eye movement (REM) sleep – a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, which have been linked to dreaming
- Much of our knowledge of what happens during sleep comes from the electroencephalogram, or EEG, a measurement of electrical activity within the brain (see Chapter 2). When probes from an EEG machine are attached to the surface of a sleeping person’s scalp and face, it becomes clear that the brain is active throughout the night. It produces electrical discharges that form systematic, wavelike patterns that change in height (or amplitude) and speed (or frequency) in regular sequences. Instruments that measure muscle and eye movements also reveal a good deal of physical activity. People progress through four distinct stages of sleep during a night’s rest, moving through the stages in cycles lasting about 90 minutes. Each of these four sleep stages is associated with a unique pattern of brain waves, as shown in Figure 5-1. Moreover, there are specific biological indicators of dreaming. When people first go to sleep, they move from a waking state in which they are relaxed with their eyes closed into stage 1 sleep, which is characterized by relatively rapid, low-voltage brain waves. This is actually a stage of transition between wakefulness and sleep. During stage 1 images sometimes appear, as if we were viewing still photos. However, true dreaming does not occur during the initial entry into this stage, although it does happen during subsequent periods of stage 1 sleep that occur later in the evening. As sleep becomes deeper, people enter stage 2 sleep, which is characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern. However, there are also momentary interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky waves called sleep spindles because of their configuration. It becomes increasingly difficult to awaken a person from stage 2 sleep, which makes up about half of the total sleep of those in their early twenties.
- alpha waves – rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation theta waves – slow brain waves produced during the hypnagogic state delta waves – strong, slow brain waves usually emitted during stage 4 sleep
- As people drift into stage 3 sleep, the next stage of sleep, the brain waves become slower, with an appearance of higher peaks and lower valleys in the wave pattern. By the time sleepers arrive at stage 4 sleep, the pattern is even slower and more regular, and people are least responsive to outside stimulation. stage 4 sleep is most likely to occur during the early part of the night. In the first half of the evening, our sleep is dominated by stages 3 and 4. The last half is characterized by lighter stages of sleep—as well as the phase of sleep during which dreams occur, as we discuss next (Dement & Wolpert, 1958). In addition to passing through regular transitions between stages of sleep, then, people tend to sleep less and less deeply over the course of the night.
- Figure 5.3 Sleep Cycles. This figure illustrates the alternation of REM sleep and non-REM sleep for the typical sleeper. There are about five periods of REM sleep during an eight-hour night. Sleep is deeper earlier in the night, and REM sleep tends to become prolonged toward morning.
- Truth or Fiction? We act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams. FALSE There is no evidence that we do so.
- activation-synthesis model – the view that acetylcholine and the pons activate the reticular activating system, which stimulates the cortex, but not to the point of waking; the cortex then pieces together (synthesizes) the cognitive activity into a dream
- Truth or Fiction? Insomnia can be caused by trying too hard to fall asleep. TRUE Trying to get to sleep compounds sleep problems by creating autonomic activity and muscle tension. narcolepsy – a “sleep attack” in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly
- Truth or Fiction? It is dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker. FALSE There is no evidence that sleepwalkers become violent if they are awakened, although they may be confused and upset.
- LO3 Explain various uses of hypnosis, forms of medication, and biofeedback techniques in altering consciousness.
- Truth or Fiction? You can be hypnotized against your will. FALSE It is extremely unlikely.
- role theory - a theory that explains hypnotic events in the terms of the person’s ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized response set theory - the view that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist
- transcendental meditation (TM) – the simplified form of meditation brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and used as a method for coping with stress mindfulness meditation (MM) – a form of meditation that provides clients with techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems
- Truth or Fiction? You can teach a rat to raise or lower its heart rate. TRUE biofeedback training – the systematic feeding back to an organism information about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function electromyograph (EMG) – an instrument that measures muscle tension
- LO4 Explain the concepts of substance abuse; identify categories of drugs and how they alter consciousness.
- some substances, known as psychoactive drugs, lead to an altered state of consciousness. Psychoactive drugs influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. Yet even these drugs are common in most of our lives. If you have ever had a cup of coffee or sipped a beer, you have taken a psychoactive drug. drugs vary widely in the effects they have on users, in part because they affect the nervous system in very different ways. Some drugs alter the limbic system, while others impact the operation of specific neurotransmitters across the synapses of neurons (see Chapter 3). For example, some drugs block or enhance the release of neurotransmitters, some block the receipt or the removal of a neurotransmitter, while still others mimic the effects of a particular neurotransmitter ***The limbic system itself is central in the control of emotional responses. Involved in memory and emotion The most dangerous drugs are addictive. Addictive drugs produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user, and withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible. Addictions may be biologically based, in which case the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function in its absence. Or addictions may be psychologically based, in which case people believe that they need the drug in order to respond to the stresses of daily living. Although we generally associate addiction with drugs such as heroin, everyday sorts of drugs like caffeine (found in coffee) and nicotine (found in cigarettes) have addictive aspects as well.
- substance abuse – persistent use of a substance even though it is causing or compounding problems in meeting the demands of life substance dependence – loss of control over use of a substance; biologically speaking, dependence is typified by tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or both Tolerance – habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects withdrawal symptoms – a characteristic cluster of symptoms that results from sudden decrease in an addictive drug’s level of usage
- Caffeine is one of a number of stimulants that affect the central nervous system by causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension. Caffeine is present not only in coffee; it is an important ingredient in tea, soft drinks, and chocolate as well Caffeine produces several reactions. The major behavioral effects of caffeine are an increase in attentiveness and a decrease in reaction time. Caffeine can also bring about an improvement in mood, most likely by mimicking the effects of a natural brain chemical, adenosine. Nicotine, found in cigarettes, is another common stimulant. The soothing effects of nicotine help explain why cigarette smoking is addictive. Smokers develop a dependence on nicotine, and those who suddenly stop smoking develop strong cravings for the drug. This is not surprising: nicotine activates neuronal mechanisms similar to those activated by cocaine, which, as we see next, is also highly addictive (Murray, 1990; Pich et al., 1997). Cocaine. Although its use has declined over the last decade, the stimulant cocaine and its derivative, crack, still represent a serious concern. Cocaine is inhaled or “snorted” through the nose, smoked, or injected directly into the bloodstream. It is rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately. Amphetamines are strong stimulants, such as Dexedrine and Benzedrine, popularly known as speed. When their use soared in the 1970s, the phrase “speed kills” became prevalent as the drugs caused an increasing number of deaths. Although amphetamine use has declined from its 1970s peak, many drug experts believe that speed would quickly resurface in large quantities if cocaine supplies were interrupted.
- the effect of depressants is to impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly. Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of intoxication—drunkenness—along with a sense of euphoria and joy. When large amounts are taken, however, speech becomes slurred and muscle control becomes disjointed, making motion difficult. Ultimately, heavy users may lose consciousness entirely. The most common depressant is alcohol, which is used by more people than any other drug. Based on liquor sales, the average person over the age of 14 drinks 2 ½ gallons of pure alcohol over the course of a year. This works out to more than 200 drinks per person. Although alcohol consumption has declined steadily over the last decade, surveys show that more than three-fourths of college students indicate that they have had a drink within the last thirty days (NIAAA, 1990; Carmody, 1990; Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1994). It is not clear why certain people become alcoholics and develop a tolerance for alcohol, while others do not. Some evidence suggests a genetic cause, although the question of whether there is a specific inherited gene that produces alcoholism is controversial. Rohypnol is sometimes called the “date rape drug,” because, when it is mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault.
- Barbiturates, (Nembutal, Seconal, and Phenobarbital) -Frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or to reduce stress, barbiturates produce a sense of relaxation. -Yet they too are psychologically and physically addictive and, when combined with alcohol, can be deadly, since such a combination relaxes the muscles of the diaphragm to such an extent that the user stops breathing.
- Narcotics are drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Two of the most powerful narcotics, morphine and heroin, are derived from the poppy seed pod. Although morphine is used medically to control severe pain, heroin is illegal in the United States. This has not prevented its widespread use. Heroin users usually inject the drug directly into their veins with a hypodermic needle. The immediate effect has been described as a “rush” of positive feeling, similar in some respects to a sexual orgasm—and just as difficult to describe. After the rush, a heroin user experiences a sense of well-being and peacefulness that lasts three to five hours. When the effects of the drug wear off, however, the user feels extreme anxiety and a desperate desire to repeat the experience. Moreover, larger amounts of heroin are needed each time to produce the same pleasurable effect. Because of the powerful positive feelings the drug produces, heroin addiction is particularly difficult to cure. One treatment that has shown some success is the use of methadone Methadone is a synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user’s physiological cravings for the drug without providing the “high” that accompanies heroin. When heroin users are placed on regular doses of methadone they may be able to function relatively normally. The use of methadone has one substantial drawback, however. Although it removes the psychological dependence on heroin, it replaces the biological addiction to heroin with a biological addiction to methadone. Researchers, then, are attempting to identify nonaddictive chemical substitutes for heroin, as well as substitutes for other addictive drugs, which do not replace one addiction with another (Waldrop, 1989;
- opiates – a group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system narcotics – drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep. The term is usually reserved for opiates. opioids – chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy
- hallucinogen, a drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process. The most common hallucinogen in widespread use today is marijuana, whose active ingredient—tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—is found in a common weed, cannabis. There are clear risks associated with long-term, heavy marijuana use. Although marijuana does not seem to produce addiction by itself, some evidence suggests that there are similarities in the way marijuana and drugs such as cocaine and heroin affect the brain. In addition, marijuana has several medical uses; it can be used to prevent nausea from chemotherapy, treat some AIDS symptoms, and relieve muscle spasms for people with spinal cord injuries. In a controversial move, several states have made the use of the drug legal if it is prescribed by a physician—although it remains illegal under U.S. federal law (Brookhiser, 1997; Iverson, 2000). MDMA (“Ecstasy”) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD, or “acid”) fall into the category of hallucinogens. All three drugs affect the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception (Aghajanian, 1994; Cloud, 2000). Ecstasy users report a sense of peacefulness and calm. People on the drug report experiencing increased empathy and connection with others, as well as feeling more relaxed, yet energetic. LSD produces vivid hallucinations. Perceptions of colors, sounds, and shapes are altered so much that even the most mundane experience—such as looking at the knots in a wooden table—can seem moving and exciting. People can experience flashbacks, in which they occasionally hallucinate long after they initially used the drug.
- Narcotics are drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Two of the most powerful narcotics, morphine and heroin, are derived from the poppy seed pod. Although morphine is used medically to control severe pain, heroin is illegal in the United States. This has not prevented its widespread use. Heroin users usually inject the drug directly into their veins with a hypodermic needle. The immediate effect has been described as a “rush” of positive feeling, similar in some respects to a sexual orgasm—and just as difficult to describe. After the rush, a heroin user experiences a sense of well-being and peacefulness that lasts three to five hours. When the effects of the drug wear off, however, the user feels extreme anxiety and a desperate desire to repeat the experience. Moreover, larger amounts of heroin are needed each time to produce the same pleasurable effect. Because of the powerful positive feelings the drug produces, heroin addiction is particularly difficult to cure. One treatment that has shown some success is the use of methadone. Methadone is a synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user’s physiological cravings for the drug without providing the “high” that accompanies heroin. When heroin users are placed on regular doses of methadone they may be able to function relatively normally. The use of methadone has one substantial drawback, however. Although it removes the psychological dependence on heroin, it replaces the biological addiction to heroin with a biological addiction to methadone. Researchers, then, are attempting to identify nonaddictive chemical substitutes for heroin, as well as substitutes for other addictive drugs, which do not replace one addiction with another (Waldrop, 1989;
- depressant – a drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system
- opiates – a group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system narcotics – drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep. The term is usually reserved for opiates. opioids – chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy
- barbiturate – an addictive depressant used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep
- Truth or Fiction? Many health professionals calm down hyperactive children by giving them a stimulant. TRUE Ritalin has been shown to increase attention span, decrease aggressive and disruptive behavior, and lead to academic gains stimulant – a drug that increases activity of the nervous system
- Truth or Fiction? Coca-Cola once “added life” to its signature drink through the use of a powerful—but now illegal—stimulant. TRUE Coca-Cola once used a powerful then legal but now illegal stimulant: cocaine. They stopped using cocaine in 1906.
- Figure 5.4 How Cocaine Produces Euphoria and Why People “Crash”. A. In the normal functioning of the nervous system, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft by vesicles in terminal buttons of sending neurons. Many are taken up by receptor sites in receiving neurons. B. In the process called reuptake, sending neurons typically reabsorb excess molecules of neurotransmitters. C. Molecules of cocaine bind to the sites on sending neurons that normally reuptake molecules of neurotransmitters. As a result, molecules of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin remain longer in the synaptic cleft, increasing their typical mood-altering effects and providing a euphoric “rush.” When the person stops using cocaine, the lessened absorption of neurotransmitters by receiving neurons causes his or her mood to “crash.” Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych to access an interactive version of this figure.
- Truth or Fiction? The number of people who die from smoking-related causes is greater than the number lost to motor vehicle accidents, abuse of alcohol and all other drugs, suicide, homicide, and AIDS combined. True Nearly 430,000 Americans die from smoking-related illnesses each year. hydrocarbons – chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon secondhand smoke – smoke from the tobacco products and exhalations of other people
- hallucinogen – chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon marijuana – the dried vegetable matter of the Cannabis sativa plant
- LSD – lysergic acid diethylamide; a hallucinogen flashbacks – distorted perceptions or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after LSD usage but mimic the LSD experience mescaline – a hallucinogen derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus phencyclidine (PCP) – another hallucinogen whose name is an acronym for its chemical structure