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Chapter 1. the human body an orientation
- 1. THE HUMAN BODY: An Orientation Floramae B. Yecyec,RN,RM,MN
- 3. ANATOMY “To tear apart” – Greek word Structure of Body parts & their relationship to one another PHYSIOLOGY Function of the Body
- 4. Gross Anatomy MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY – large body structures visible to the naked eye Approaches 1. Regional Anatomy 2. Systemic Anatomy 3. Surface Anatomy
- 5. Gross Anatomy Regional Anatomy – All structures in particular region are examined at the same time Systemic Anatomy – Body structures studied system by system Surface Anatomy - Internal structures related to the overlying skin surface
- 6. Microscopic Anatomy Structures too small to be seen with naked eye 1. Cytology – cells 2. Histology – tissues
- 7. Developmental Anatomy Traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span Embryology – developmental stages that occur before birth.
- 8. Other Anatomy Subdivisions Pathological Anatomy – structural changes caused by disease Radiographic Anatomy – internal structures as visualized by specialized scanning procedures Molecular Biology - structure of biological molecules
- 10. Essential Tools in Studying Anatomy Mastery of Anatomical Terminology Observation Manipulation Palpation - feeling organs with hands Auscultation – listening organ sounds with a stethoscope
- 11. Subdivisions of Physiology Renal Physiology – kidney function & urine production Neurophysiology – workings of nervous system Cardiovascular physiology – operation of the heart and blood vessels
- 12. Principles of Complementarity of Structure & Function “What a structure can do depends on its specific form”
- 14. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION 1 2 4 3 6 Tissue Level Organismal Level Chemical Level Organ System Level Cellular Level Organ Level 5
- 15. 3 6 2 5 4 1
- 17. 1. Chemical Level Simplest level of structural hierarchy Atoms Molecules Organelle Atoms – tiny blocks of matter Organelles – basic components of microscopic cells
- 18. 2. Cellular Level Cells – smallest unit of living things Smooth Muscle Cell
- 19. 3. Tissue Level Tissues – groups of similar cells that have common function Four Basic Types 1. Epithelium – covers body surface & lines its cavities 2. Muscle – movement 3. Connective Tissue – supports & protects body organs 4. Nervous Tissue – rapid internal communication by tansmitting electrical impulses
- 20. 4. Organ Level Organ – discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types that perform a specific function for the body Epithelial & Connective Tissue Epithelial Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue Layers
- 21. 5. Organ System Level Organ System – organs that work together to accomplish common purpose
- 29. Lymphatic System Red bone marrow Thymus Thoracic duct Spleen Lymph Nodes
- 31. Digestive System Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum Anus
- 34. Female Reproductive System Ovary Mammary glands (in breasts) Uterine TubeUterus Vagina
- 35. 6. Organismal Level Sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive Organism – Living Human Being Highest level of organization
- 36. MAINTANING LIFE
- 37. Necessary Life Functions 1. Maintaining boundaries - Internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it Plasma Membrane
- 39. Necessary Life Functions 2. Movement Activities promoted by the muscular system Propelling ourselves from one place to another Manipulating the external environment with nimble fingers Substances propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive & urinary systems
- 40. Skeletal System Joint Bones Muscular System Skeletal Muscles
- 41. Necessary Life Functions 3. Responsiveness / Excitability – ability to sense changes in the environment & respond to them Hand cut on Broken glass Withdrawal reflex Dangerous high blood levels of CO2 Rapid breathing
- 43. Digestive System Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum Anus 4. Digestion Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
- 44. Necessary Life Functions 5. Metabolism – “a state of change” Catabolism – breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks Anabolism – synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances Cellular Respiration – using nutrients & oxygen to produce ATP
- 45. Digestive System Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum Anus Respiratory System Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lung Bronchus
- 47. Necessary Life Functions 6. Excretion – process of removing wastes or excreta from the body
- 48. Digestive System Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum Anus Urinary System Kidney Ureter Urinary Bladder Urethra
- 50. Necessary Life Functions 7. Reproduction Cellular Reproduction – Original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair Reproduction of Human Organism – Making a whole new person
- 53. Necessary Life Functions 8. Growth – increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole Increase the number of cells Increase in cell size
- 54. Necessary Life Functions 8. Growth True Growth – Constructive activities must occur at faster rate than destructive ones
- 55. Welcome Back
- 56. Survival Needs 1. Nutrients – via diet Contain the chemical substances used for energy & cell building Plant derived foods – rich in carbohydrates, vitamins & minerals Animal foods – rich in protein & fats
- 57. Survival Needs 1. Nutrients – via diet Carbohydrates – major fuel for body cells Proteins – essential for building cell structure Fats – reserve energy-rich fuel Minerals & Vitamins – required for chemical reactions that go on cells & for O2 transport in blood
- 58. Survival Needs 2. Oxygen – oxidative reactions 20% of air we breath Excessive amounts of O2 – toxic to body cells
- 59. Survival Needs 3. Water – 60-80% of our body weight Most abundant chemical substance of the body Provides watery environment necessary for chemical reactions & fluid base for body secretions & excretions
- 60. Survival Needs 4. Normal Body Temperature < 37 oC – metabolic reactions become slower & slower Too high temperature – chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace & proteins lost their characteristic shape & stop functioning
- 61. Survival Needs 5. Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure – force that air exerts on the surface of the body Breathing & gas exchange in the lungs At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower & air thin
- 63. HOMEOSTASIS Coined by Walter Canon Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes simultaneously Indicates Dynamic State of Equilibrium or Balance Body is in homeostasis when its needs are adequately met & it is functioning smoothly
- 64. Interactions Among the Elements of a Homeostatic Control System Maintain Stable Internal Conditions
- 65. 1. Receptor Sensor that monitors the environment & respond to changes called STIMULI, by sending information (INPUT) to the CONTROL CENTER Afferent Pathway
- 66. 2. Control Center SET POINT – level or range at which a variable is to be maintained Analyzes the input it receives & determines the appropriate response or course of action Efferent Pathway
- 67. 2. Control Center Information (OUTPUT) flows from Control Center to Effector. Efferent Pathway
- 68. 3. Effector Provides the means for the control center’s response (OUTPUT) to the stimulus, either in NEGATIVE or POSITIVE FEEDBACK
- 69. Negative Feedback Mechanisms Most homeostatic control mechanisms Output shuts off the original effect of the effect or reduces its intensity Cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its “ideal” value Body temperature, blood volume, heart rate, blood pressure, depth of breathing, blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide & minerals
- 70. Body Temperature Regulated by Negative Feedback Mechanism
- 71. Positive Feedback Mechanisms Result or response enhances the original stimulus so that response is accelerated Change that results proceed in the same direction as the initial change causing the variable to deviate further from its original value or range “Cascades” Enhancement of labor contractions during birth & blood clotting
- 72. A Positive Feedback Mechanism Regulates Formation of A Platelet Plug
- 73. ANATOMICAL POSITION Standard Body Position – Anatomical Reference Point Body is erect with feet slightly apart Palms face forward & thumbs point away from the body
- 74. Orientation & Directional Terms Superior (Cranial) Toward the head or upper part of a structure or the body; above Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Inferior (Caudal)
- 75. Orientation & Directional Terms Ventral (Anterior) Toward or at the front of the body; in front of Toward or at the back of the body; behind Dorsal (Posterior)
- 76. Orientation & Directional Terms Medial Lateral Intermediate Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Between a more medial & a more lateral structure
- 77. Orientation & Directional Terms Proximal Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Distal
- 78. Orientation & Directional Terms Superficial (External) Toward or at the body surface Away from the body surface; more internal Deep (Internal)
- 79. Regional Terms Fundamental Divisions of the Body 1. AXIAL PART - main axis of the body Head, neck & trunk 2. APPENDICULAR PART – attached to the body axis Appendages or limbs
- 83. Body Planes & Sections
- 84. vertical plane that divides the body into right & left parts Sagittal Plane MEDIAN PLANE/ MIDSAGITTAL PLANE – sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline
- 86. PARASAGITTAL PLANES – all other sagittal planes offset from the midline Sagittal Plane
- 87. CORONAL PLANES Lie vertically that divide the body into anterior & posterior parts Frontal Planes
- 89. HORIZONTAL PLANE CROSS SECTION Runs horizontally from right to left, dividing into superior & inferior parts Transverse Plane
- 91. Cuts made diagonally between horizontal & vertical planes Oblique Sections
- 92. Body Cavities & Membranes
- 93. Dorsal Body Cavity Protects the fragile nervous system organs Two Subdivisions 1. Cranial Cavity – in the skull, encases the brain 2. Vertebral/Spinal Cavity – runs within the body vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord
- 95. Ventral Body Cavity More anterior & larger of the closed body cavities Houses internal organs collectively called viscera or visceral organs Two Subdivisions 1. Thoracic Cavity – superior subdivision Surrounded by the ribs & muscles of the chest
- 97. Ventral Body Cavity Two Subdivisions 1. Thoracic Cavity a. Pleural cavities – lateral , each enveloping a lung b. Mediastinum – medial 1) Pericardial Cavity – heart 2) Thoracic organs – esophagus, trachea & others Diaphragm – separates thoracic cavity from abdominopelvic cavity
- 99. Ventral Body Cavity Diaphragm – Dome shaped muscle important in breathing 2. Abdominopelvic cavity a. Abdominal cavity – stomach, intestines, spleen, liver & other organs b. Pelvic cavity – urinary bladder, some reproductive organs & rectum
- 100. Ventral Body Cavity
- 101. Membranes of the Ventral Cavity SEROSA/SEROUS MEMBRANE – thin, doubled- layered membrane that covers the wall of the ventral cavity & the outer surfaces of the organ it contains 1. Parietal Serosa – part of the membrane lining the cavity walls 2. Visceral Serosa – folds of serosa that covers the organs in the cavity
- 103. Serous Fluid Thin layer of lubricating fluid that separates the serous membranes Secreted by both membranes Allows the organ to slide without friction across the cavity walls & one another as they carry out their routine functions Heart Stomach
- 104. Serous Membranes Parietal pericardium – lines the pericardial cavity Visceral pericardium – folds back parietal pericardium that covers the heart
- 105. Serous Membranes Parietal pleurae – lines that walls of the thoracic cavity Visceral pleurae – cover the lungs Parietal peritoneum – associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity Visceral peritoneum – covers most of the organs within the cavity
- 106. Serous Membranes
- 109. The Nine Abdominal Regions
- 110. The Nine Abdominal Regions Umbilical Region – centermost region deep to & surrounding the umbilicus (navel) Epigastric Region – superior to the umbilical region Hypogastric (Pubic) Region – inferior to the umbilical region
- 111. The Nine Abdominal Regions Right & Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region – lateral to the hypogastric region Right & Left Lumbar Region – lateral to the umbilical region Right & Left Hypochondriac Region – lateral to the epigastric region & deep to the ribs
- 112. The Nine Abdominal Regions
- 113. Other Body Cavities Oral & Digestive Cavities Oral Cavity – the mouth, part of & continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the exterior at the anus. Nasal Cavity – located within & posterior to the nose Orbital Cavities – in the skull, house the eyes & present them in an anterior position
- 114. Other Body Cavities Middle ear cavities – in the skull, lie medial to the eardrums Contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears Synovial cavities – Joint cavities Enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body