The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste. Blood contains plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells are produced through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen. They have a lifespan of about 120 days before being destroyed and recycled in the spleen. Iron is essential for erythropoiesis and hemoglobin production.
The document provides information on the structure and components of the thorax. It discusses the bones that make up the thoracic cage including the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae. It describes the joints that connect these bones, including costovertebral, costotransverse, and sternocostal joints. The document also outlines the landmarks of the thorax, the shape of the thoracic cavity, and the openings at the superior and inferior aspects.
This document summarizes the histology and classification of muscle tissue. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Skeletal muscle is composed of elongated cells with multiple nuclei and striations due to the overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Cardiac muscle cells are branched with central nuclei and intercalated discs. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single central nucleus. The document focuses on the histology and structure of skeletal muscle.
This document discusses the cardiovascular system. It defines circulation as the flow of blood and lymph through vessels. There are three types of circulation: systemic, pulmonary, and portal. The importance of circulation is to supply oxygen and nutrients to tissues and remove waste products. Blood vessels are classified anatomically as arteries and veins, and functionally as distribution, resistance, exchange, and capacitance vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through the body and lungs via the pulmonary and systemic circuits. It is a central pumping organ made of muscle tissue with four valves that ensure one-way blood flow.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes how the nervous system is composed of nervous tissue, including neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons are the conducting cells that send and receive signals, while neuroglial cells provide support and insulation. The document outlines the key cell types, their roles, and organizational structure of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
This document discusses the anatomy and surgical approaches related to the thoracic spine. It provides details on:
- The anatomy of typical thoracic vertebrae including their vertebral bodies, facets, and transverse processes.
- The ligaments connecting the ribs to the thoracic vertebrae.
- Three common surgical approaches - the anterior (trans-thoracic) approach, posterolateral (costotransversectomy) approach, and posterior approach. Each approach is described in terms of indications, patient positioning, incision details, and important anatomic structures to identify and retract.
- Considerations for each approach like potential complications and the structures at risk of injury.
Intracellular accumulations of substances can occur in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Mild accumulations cause reversible cell injury, while severe accumulations result in irreversible injury. Abnormal intracellular accumulations fall into three categories: accumulations of normal cell constituents like lipids and proteins; accumulations of abnormal substances from abnormal metabolism; and accumulations of pigments, both endogenous like melanin and lipofuscin, and exogenous pigments. Fatty liver is a common site of fat accumulation and can range from mild and reversible to severe and irreversible. The pathogenesis of fatty liver involves defects in the normal processes of fat transport and metabolism in the liver.
The document provides information on the structure and components of the thorax. It discusses the bones that make up the thoracic cage including the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae. It describes the joints that connect these bones, including costovertebral, costotransverse, and sternocostal joints. The document also outlines the landmarks of the thorax, the shape of the thoracic cavity, and the openings at the superior and inferior aspects.
This document summarizes the histology and classification of muscle tissue. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Skeletal muscle is composed of elongated cells with multiple nuclei and striations due to the overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Cardiac muscle cells are branched with central nuclei and intercalated discs. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single central nucleus. The document focuses on the histology and structure of skeletal muscle.
This document discusses the cardiovascular system. It defines circulation as the flow of blood and lymph through vessels. There are three types of circulation: systemic, pulmonary, and portal. The importance of circulation is to supply oxygen and nutrients to tissues and remove waste products. Blood vessels are classified anatomically as arteries and veins, and functionally as distribution, resistance, exchange, and capacitance vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through the body and lungs via the pulmonary and systemic circuits. It is a central pumping organ made of muscle tissue with four valves that ensure one-way blood flow.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes how the nervous system is composed of nervous tissue, including neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons are the conducting cells that send and receive signals, while neuroglial cells provide support and insulation. The document outlines the key cell types, their roles, and organizational structure of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
This document discusses the anatomy and surgical approaches related to the thoracic spine. It provides details on:
- The anatomy of typical thoracic vertebrae including their vertebral bodies, facets, and transverse processes.
- The ligaments connecting the ribs to the thoracic vertebrae.
- Three common surgical approaches - the anterior (trans-thoracic) approach, posterolateral (costotransversectomy) approach, and posterior approach. Each approach is described in terms of indications, patient positioning, incision details, and important anatomic structures to identify and retract.
- Considerations for each approach like potential complications and the structures at risk of injury.
Intracellular accumulations of substances can occur in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Mild accumulations cause reversible cell injury, while severe accumulations result in irreversible injury. Abnormal intracellular accumulations fall into three categories: accumulations of normal cell constituents like lipids and proteins; accumulations of abnormal substances from abnormal metabolism; and accumulations of pigments, both endogenous like melanin and lipofuscin, and exogenous pigments. Fatty liver is a common site of fat accumulation and can range from mild and reversible to severe and irreversible. The pathogenesis of fatty liver involves defects in the normal processes of fat transport and metabolism in the liver.
1. The document discusses various hemodynamic disorders including edema, hyperemia, congestion, hemorrhage, thrombosis, embolism, infarction, and shock.
2. Edema results from fluid movement into tissues and can affect subcutaneous tissues, lungs, and brain. Congestion is the passive filling of tissues with blood due to impaired outflow.
3. Thrombosis is the formation of clots within vessels, which can then embolize and travel to other sites (embolism), potentially causing ischemic tissue damage or infarction if blood flow is not restored.
4. Shock represents a failure of circulation to maintain adequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation.
The human skeleton can be divided into two parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum, and forms the core of the body providing support and protecting organs. The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones organized into the upper and lower limbs, including shoulders, pelvis, arms, forearms, hands, thighs, legs, feet, and ankles. Together the skeleton provides structure, movement, protection, storage, and production of blood cells to the body.
The Reticuloendothelial System (RES) consists of phagocytic cells that remove dead or abnormal cells, tissues, and foreign substances from the body. The RES is made up of monocytes that descend into tissues and become macrophages, with 90% located in the liver. It functions to cleanse the body and is regulated by the nervous system and chemicals in the body, and brain activity influences macrophage activity in the reticular endothelium.
This document provides an overview of the surface anatomy of the upper limb. It begins by outlining the objectives of being able to palpate bony prominences, muscles, tendons, arteries, and veins. Surface anatomy is then defined as examining external body shapes and markings as they relate to deeper structures. The document then describes in detail the surface landmarks that can be palpated in the clavicle, shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, axilla, and arterial patterns.
This document provides an overview of muscle tissue histophysiology. It discusses the structural unit of muscle tissue as muscle fibers. It describes the organization of skeletal muscles into myofibrils, sarcomeres, and myofilaments. It explains the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction and how calcium targets activate myofilament sliding. It also discusses dystrophin's role in muscle fiber stability and protection from contraction damage. Smooth muscle tissue types and their roles in organs like the GI tract and blood vessels are outlined. The molecular organization of filaments and caveolae structures in smooth muscle are briefly touched on.
Lecture 12 the skeleton embryology pdfMBBS IMS MSU
1. The vertebral column is derived from sclerotomes of somites, with each vertebra formed by fusion of portions from two adjacent somites.
2. The ribs are derived from ventral extensions of sclerotomal mesenchyme. The sternum is formed by fusion of right and left sternal bars.
3. The skull develops from mesenchyme around the brain, with some bones forming in membrane and some in cartilage. The limbs first appear as outgrowths from the body wall that get subdivided to form parts.
Histology is the study of tissues at a microscopic level. It involves preparing tissue samples using processes like fixation, dehydration, embedding, sectioning, and staining. Different types of microscopes like light, transmission electron, and scanning electron microscopes are used to examine cells and structures at varying levels of magnification, resolution, and contrast. Common staining techniques include hematoxylin and eosin, periodic acid-schiff, and trichrome stains which allow visualization of different cellular components. Histochemistry and immunocytochemistry further aid in localization of macromolecules within tissues.
Blood functions to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and more throughout the body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin and have a normal lifespan of 100-120 days before being recycled. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a common test measuring the rate at which red blood cells sediment in one hour, indicating inflammation.
The document summarizes the history and characteristics of platelets. It describes key discoveries such as George Gulliver drawing early platelet images in 1841 and Max Schultze describing "spherules" in 1865. The document outlines platelet formation in the bone marrow, structure, granule contents, functions in hemostasis, testing of platelet function, causes of low and high platelet counts, and associated conditions.
The lumbar vertebrae have five typical vertebrae (L1-L4) and one atypical fifth lumbar vertebra (L5). They have large bodies and triangular vertebral foramina. The vertebral arch is formed by short, strong pedicles and thick, short laminae connected by a quadrilateral spine. Each vertebra has transverse processes and superior and inferior articular facets. The lumbar vertebrae ossify from primary centers that appear between 9-16 weeks and fuse between ages 1-6 years, with secondary centers appearing at puberty and fusing by age 25. Anomalies can include sacralization of L5 or lumbarization of S1. Applied anatomy discusses conditions like disc prolapse
cardiovascular system
blood vessels
biology
b.pharma
Introduction to Heart
Location & position of heart
Anatomy of heart
Heart wall
Valves of heart
Heart – Interior of front
Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis composed mainly of glial-like cells called pituicytes.
The pituicytes do not secrete hormones.
They act simply as a supporting structure for large numbers
of terminal nerve fibers and terminal nerve endings from nerve tracts.
That originate in the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei of the hypothalamus.
The document summarizes the arterial blood supply and venous drainage of the heart. The right and left coronary arteries arise from the aorta and branch to supply the heart. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium and ventricle. The left coronary artery divides into the anterior interventricular branch and circumflex artery to supply the left side of the heart. Venous blood from the heart drains mainly into the coronary sinus via the great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, small cardiac vein and anterior cardiac vein.
This document discusses erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells. It describes the stages of red blood cell development from stem cells to reticulocytes to mature red blood cells. Erythropoiesis is regulated by factors like erythropoietin and tissue oxygen levels. Erythropoietin is produced mainly in the kidneys and stimulates red blood cell production. Vitamins like B12 and folic acid are also essential for red blood cell maturation.
This document provides an overview of the composition and functions of blood. It discusses the process of hematopoiesis where blood cells are formed, the different blood components including red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. It also covers hemoglobin, coagulation, bleeding disorders and the regulation of red blood cell production by erythropoietin. Key blood values and functions of blood components such as transportation and immunity are highlighted.
The diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It originates from the xiphoid process, lower ribs, and lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm has openings for the esophagus, inferior vena cava, and aorta. During inhalation, contraction of the diaphragm increases the vertical space in the chest cavity, aiding breathing. In addition to respiration, the diaphragm assists with abdominal straining, lifting weights, and pumping blood and lymph through the thorax.
This chapter will discuss blood composition, the physical and chemical properties of blood, blood cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets, hemostasis, blood groups, and principles of blood transfusion. Specifically, it will cover the components and characteristics of plasma, hematopoiesis and the life cycle of red blood cells, the roles and regulation of white blood cells and platelets, and the clinical significance of blood groups and cross-matching for transfusion.
The document provides information about the lymphatic and immune systems. It discusses:
1) The functions of the lymphatic system include maintaining fluid balance, protecting the body from infection and disease, absorbing lipids and fluid, and returning fluid to the bloodstream.
2) Lymph flows through lymphatic capillaries, vessels, and ducts before emptying into veins. Valves in the vessels help propel the lymph forward. Lymphatic flow is aided by muscle contractions and pumps.
3) The immune system includes innate defenses like skin, mucus, antimicrobial proteins, and inflammation as well as adaptive defenses involving lymphocytes and antigen presentation.
This document summarizes the key components of the innate and adaptive immune system. It discusses phagocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages that engulf and destroy pathogens. It also describes inflammation, a protective response to infection or injury. Finally, it outlines the adaptive immune system involving antigens, antibodies, and cellular immunity mediated by T cells and B cells that provides a highly specific long-lasting response against pathogens.
1. The document discusses various hemodynamic disorders including edema, hyperemia, congestion, hemorrhage, thrombosis, embolism, infarction, and shock.
2. Edema results from fluid movement into tissues and can affect subcutaneous tissues, lungs, and brain. Congestion is the passive filling of tissues with blood due to impaired outflow.
3. Thrombosis is the formation of clots within vessels, which can then embolize and travel to other sites (embolism), potentially causing ischemic tissue damage or infarction if blood flow is not restored.
4. Shock represents a failure of circulation to maintain adequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation.
The human skeleton can be divided into two parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum, and forms the core of the body providing support and protecting organs. The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones organized into the upper and lower limbs, including shoulders, pelvis, arms, forearms, hands, thighs, legs, feet, and ankles. Together the skeleton provides structure, movement, protection, storage, and production of blood cells to the body.
The Reticuloendothelial System (RES) consists of phagocytic cells that remove dead or abnormal cells, tissues, and foreign substances from the body. The RES is made up of monocytes that descend into tissues and become macrophages, with 90% located in the liver. It functions to cleanse the body and is regulated by the nervous system and chemicals in the body, and brain activity influences macrophage activity in the reticular endothelium.
This document provides an overview of the surface anatomy of the upper limb. It begins by outlining the objectives of being able to palpate bony prominences, muscles, tendons, arteries, and veins. Surface anatomy is then defined as examining external body shapes and markings as they relate to deeper structures. The document then describes in detail the surface landmarks that can be palpated in the clavicle, shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, axilla, and arterial patterns.
This document provides an overview of muscle tissue histophysiology. It discusses the structural unit of muscle tissue as muscle fibers. It describes the organization of skeletal muscles into myofibrils, sarcomeres, and myofilaments. It explains the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction and how calcium targets activate myofilament sliding. It also discusses dystrophin's role in muscle fiber stability and protection from contraction damage. Smooth muscle tissue types and their roles in organs like the GI tract and blood vessels are outlined. The molecular organization of filaments and caveolae structures in smooth muscle are briefly touched on.
Lecture 12 the skeleton embryology pdfMBBS IMS MSU
1. The vertebral column is derived from sclerotomes of somites, with each vertebra formed by fusion of portions from two adjacent somites.
2. The ribs are derived from ventral extensions of sclerotomal mesenchyme. The sternum is formed by fusion of right and left sternal bars.
3. The skull develops from mesenchyme around the brain, with some bones forming in membrane and some in cartilage. The limbs first appear as outgrowths from the body wall that get subdivided to form parts.
Histology is the study of tissues at a microscopic level. It involves preparing tissue samples using processes like fixation, dehydration, embedding, sectioning, and staining. Different types of microscopes like light, transmission electron, and scanning electron microscopes are used to examine cells and structures at varying levels of magnification, resolution, and contrast. Common staining techniques include hematoxylin and eosin, periodic acid-schiff, and trichrome stains which allow visualization of different cellular components. Histochemistry and immunocytochemistry further aid in localization of macromolecules within tissues.
Blood functions to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and more throughout the body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin and have a normal lifespan of 100-120 days before being recycled. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a common test measuring the rate at which red blood cells sediment in one hour, indicating inflammation.
The document summarizes the history and characteristics of platelets. It describes key discoveries such as George Gulliver drawing early platelet images in 1841 and Max Schultze describing "spherules" in 1865. The document outlines platelet formation in the bone marrow, structure, granule contents, functions in hemostasis, testing of platelet function, causes of low and high platelet counts, and associated conditions.
The lumbar vertebrae have five typical vertebrae (L1-L4) and one atypical fifth lumbar vertebra (L5). They have large bodies and triangular vertebral foramina. The vertebral arch is formed by short, strong pedicles and thick, short laminae connected by a quadrilateral spine. Each vertebra has transverse processes and superior and inferior articular facets. The lumbar vertebrae ossify from primary centers that appear between 9-16 weeks and fuse between ages 1-6 years, with secondary centers appearing at puberty and fusing by age 25. Anomalies can include sacralization of L5 or lumbarization of S1. Applied anatomy discusses conditions like disc prolapse
cardiovascular system
blood vessels
biology
b.pharma
Introduction to Heart
Location & position of heart
Anatomy of heart
Heart wall
Valves of heart
Heart – Interior of front
Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis composed mainly of glial-like cells called pituicytes.
The pituicytes do not secrete hormones.
They act simply as a supporting structure for large numbers
of terminal nerve fibers and terminal nerve endings from nerve tracts.
That originate in the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei of the hypothalamus.
The document summarizes the arterial blood supply and venous drainage of the heart. The right and left coronary arteries arise from the aorta and branch to supply the heart. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium and ventricle. The left coronary artery divides into the anterior interventricular branch and circumflex artery to supply the left side of the heart. Venous blood from the heart drains mainly into the coronary sinus via the great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, small cardiac vein and anterior cardiac vein.
This document discusses erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells. It describes the stages of red blood cell development from stem cells to reticulocytes to mature red blood cells. Erythropoiesis is regulated by factors like erythropoietin and tissue oxygen levels. Erythropoietin is produced mainly in the kidneys and stimulates red blood cell production. Vitamins like B12 and folic acid are also essential for red blood cell maturation.
This document provides an overview of the composition and functions of blood. It discusses the process of hematopoiesis where blood cells are formed, the different blood components including red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. It also covers hemoglobin, coagulation, bleeding disorders and the regulation of red blood cell production by erythropoietin. Key blood values and functions of blood components such as transportation and immunity are highlighted.
The diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It originates from the xiphoid process, lower ribs, and lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm has openings for the esophagus, inferior vena cava, and aorta. During inhalation, contraction of the diaphragm increases the vertical space in the chest cavity, aiding breathing. In addition to respiration, the diaphragm assists with abdominal straining, lifting weights, and pumping blood and lymph through the thorax.
This chapter will discuss blood composition, the physical and chemical properties of blood, blood cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets, hemostasis, blood groups, and principles of blood transfusion. Specifically, it will cover the components and characteristics of plasma, hematopoiesis and the life cycle of red blood cells, the roles and regulation of white blood cells and platelets, and the clinical significance of blood groups and cross-matching for transfusion.
The document provides information about the lymphatic and immune systems. It discusses:
1) The functions of the lymphatic system include maintaining fluid balance, protecting the body from infection and disease, absorbing lipids and fluid, and returning fluid to the bloodstream.
2) Lymph flows through lymphatic capillaries, vessels, and ducts before emptying into veins. Valves in the vessels help propel the lymph forward. Lymphatic flow is aided by muscle contractions and pumps.
3) The immune system includes innate defenses like skin, mucus, antimicrobial proteins, and inflammation as well as adaptive defenses involving lymphocytes and antigen presentation.
This document summarizes the key components of the innate and adaptive immune system. It discusses phagocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages that engulf and destroy pathogens. It also describes inflammation, a protective response to infection or injury. Finally, it outlines the adaptive immune system involving antigens, antibodies, and cellular immunity mediated by T cells and B cells that provides a highly specific long-lasting response against pathogens.
This document provides an overview of the circulatory system, including blood vessels and circulation. It describes the anatomy and layers of blood vessels, distinguishing between arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries are divided based on size into conducting, distributing, and resistance arteries. The roles of elastic tissue and smooth muscle in blood vessel walls are explained. Capillary types and their selective permeability is covered. Control of blood flow and factors influencing blood pressure such as resistance are summarized.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of the heart and circulatory system. Some key points include:
- Cardiology is the branch of medicine dealing with heart diseases. Cardiologists investigate patients using medical history, physical exams, and tests.
- The heart has four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood out. It is surrounded by membranes and uses valves to ensure one-way blood flow.
- The heart is supplied by the coronary arteries which branch directly from the aorta. Disruptions in blood flow to the heart muscle can cause angina or heart attack.
- The heart's electrical conduction system generates and coordinates the heartbeat.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of the heart and circulatory system. Some key points include:
- Cardiology is the branch of medicine that deals with heart diseases. Cardiologists investigate patients through history, exams, and tests.
- The heart is located in the mediastinum and has four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood out.
- The heart is surrounded by the pericardium and has three layers - epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. It is protected and its movements are facilitated by these layers.
- Blood flows through two circuits - the pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs and the
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. It discusses the hypothalamus and pituitary gland's role in regulating other endocrine glands through the release of hormones. Specifically, it describes how the hypothalamus regulates the anterior and posterior pituitary gland to control hormone release. The pituitary gland then regulates other endocrine glands like the thyroid, adrenals, and gonads through the release of trophic hormones like TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes. Lymph vessels circulate lymph fluid through the body and drain into two main ducts in the neck. Lymph nodes along the vessels filter bacteria and foreign bodies from the lymph. The spleen, thymus, tonsils, and other lymphoid tissues also aid the immune system. The endocrine system is made up of ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. These glands regulate processes throughout the body by producing hormones like insulin, estrogen, and adrenaline.
The document describes the structure and function of the lymphatic system and immune system. The lymphatic system includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils and other lymphatic tissues that work to remove excess fluid from tissues, absorb fatty acids, and transport white blood cells. The immune system protects the body from infection with non-specific defenses like skin and mucous membranes, and specific defenses like antibodies and lymphocytes that recognize and destroy pathogens.
The lymphatic system carries a clear fluid called lymph throughout the body via networks of thin tubes. The lymph transports infection-fighting lymphocytes, removes infectious cells, and carries fats from the intestine to the blood. Key organs involved include the bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. Lymph nodes and the spleen filter the lymph and blood, respectively. Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system that causes painless bumps in lymph nodes and general symptoms like fevers and weight loss. Treatment depends on the grade of lymphoma and may include waiting, radiation, or chemotherapy. Life expectancy with lymphoma varies significantly depending on the treatment received and response. Lymphatic obstructions can be caused by
The lymphatic system works with the cardiovascular system to return fluid to the bloodstream that has escaped into tissues. Lymph is tissue fluid that is picked up by lymph capillaries from interstitial fluid and contains oxygen, proteins, glucose and white blood cells. Lymph vessels carry lymph through lymph nodes which filter the lymph before returning it to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct. Key components of the lymphatic system include lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen and thymus which help fight infection and return fluid to circulation.
The document provides an overview of the lymphatic system, including its history, development, components, and functions. It discusses how the lymphatic system developed from lymph sacs in the embryo and transformed into nodes. The key components are lymphatic capillaries that collect fluid from tissues, vessels that connect to nodes, ducts like the thoracic duct that return lymph to blood circulation, and lymphoid organs like the thymus, bone marrow, spleen and nodes that help fight infection. The lymphatic system works to remove excess fluid, distribute nutrients, and fight pathogens throughout the body.
The lymphatic system functions to:
1) Transport clean fluids back to the blood from tissues;
2) Drain excess fluids from tissues; and
3) Remove debris from cells of the body.
Lymph is transported through lymphatic vessels in a passive, one-way system toward the heart, where it is returned to circulation. Along the way, lymph passes through lymph nodes which filter the lymph and provide an immune response. Other lymphoid organs like the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and Peyer's patches also contribute to lymphatic function and immune defense.
This document provides information on blood physiology, including:
- The functions of blood include transporting oxygen, nutrients, waste, and hormones throughout the body while maintaining temperature, pH, and fluid volume.
- Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- Red blood cells are produced through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, which transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. Erythropoietin regulates red blood cell production.
- Old red blood cells are destroyed by macrophages, and the iron and other components are recycled for use in producing new red blood cells.
This document outlines the objectives and content of a lecture on anemias and red blood cell dyscrasias. The objectives cover understanding bone marrow regulation, causes of increased and decreased red blood cell production, hemolytic anemias, iron studies, and laboratory tests to diagnose specific anemias. The content discusses red blood cell development, iron metabolism, erythropoietin regulation, hemoglobin structure and types, and classifications of anemias including causes of impaired production and increased destruction.
This document provides a study guide for Biology 2402 covering chapters 17 and 18 of the textbook and lab exercises 21 and 23. It includes a list of the main functions of blood, details on blood volume and plasma composition, descriptions of the formed elements (blood cells) including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, an explanation of hemostasis (the stopping of bleeding), and definitions of related conditions like anemia and leukemia. The guide provides essential information on the components and functions of blood in 3 sentences or less summaries.
This document discusses red blood cells and bleeding disorders. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of blood, the formed elements of blood including erythrocytes (red blood cells), and the process of erythropoiesis (red blood cell development). It also describes the transport and storage of iron in the body, which is essential for hemoglobin formation and red blood cell production. Common blood test values are presented and different types of anemia are classified based on their pathophysiology and morphological features.
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This document provides an overview of blood and hematology. It defines blood and its components, which include plasma and formed elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The document discusses the functions of blood, hematopoiesis (blood cell formation), and various blood disorders like anemia and sickle cell anemia. It also covers blood groups, hemostasis (stopping bleeding), and the immune responses provided by white blood cells. The learning objectives focus on understanding the different blood components, their structure and functions, as well as mechanisms of hemostasis, immunity, and various blood disorders.
Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. When a blood sample is centrifuged, it separates into three layers - plasma on top, red blood cells on the bottom, and a buffy coat containing white blood cells and platelets between the two layers. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen throughout the body while undergoing continuous production and destruction regulated by erythropoietin.
Blood is composed of cells suspended in plasma. The three main cell types are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, white blood cells fight infection, and platelets help with clotting to control bleeding. All blood cells are produced through hematopoiesis in the bone marrow from stem cells and require nutrients like iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12.
Blood transports gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and defends against infection. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin is produced through erythropoiesis, regulated by erythropoietin, where stem cells in bone marrow mature into reticulocytes over 15 days then biconcave red blood cells. Red blood cells live for 120 days then are phagocytosed by the liver and spleen.
Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma and blood cells that circulates through the body delivering oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other substances to tissues. It transports waste products away from tissues. The main cellular components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells help defend the body against infection and disease. Platelets assist in blood clotting. Disorders can occur if there are too few or too many blood cells or if the cells are abnormal.
The document provides an outline for a presentation on blood. It discusses the objectives, introduction, blood volume and constituents. It describes the components that make up plasma and their functions. It also details the structure, production, and functions of red blood cells, including hemoglobin, hematopoiesis, and the life cycle of an RBC. Clinical correlations around anemia and polycythemia are also summarized.
- Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. When blood is spun in a centrifuge tube, it separates into plasma, a buffy coat, and erythrocytes.
- Erythrocytes are biconcave discs that contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen throughout the body. Hemoglobin is composed of protein globin and heme groups that reversibly bind oxygen.
- Erythropoiesis is regulated by erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow in response to hypoxia. Nutrients like iron and vitamins are required for erythrocyte formation and function.
Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements. It transports oxygen, nutrients, wastes, and more throughout the body. Blood also helps regulate pH, temperature, water content, and protects against disease. Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Hematopoiesis is the process where blood cells are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow through the influence of growth factors like erythropoietin and thrombopoietin.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of blood. It describes the formation of blood cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets through hematopoiesis. It discusses the roles of iron, vitamin B12 and folate in erythropoiesis. The functions of hemoglobin and the structural differences between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin are also summarized.
Blood is a type of connective tissue composed of liquid plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Its main functions are transport, protection, and homeostasis. It transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and more to tissues and organs via circulation. Blood also protects the body through immunity and coagulation. Its volume is approximately 6-8% of body weight in a healthy adult. Blood consists of plasma, which is mostly water, and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Blood is a type of connective tissue composed of liquid plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Its main functions are transport, protection, and homeostasis. It transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and more to tissues and organs. Blood also protects the body through immunity and coagulation. Its composition includes plasma, which is 90-92% water, and formed elements. Erythrocytes are red blood cells that contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. Leukocytes are white blood cells that provide immunity, and thrombocytes are platelets that promote coagulation.
The document summarizes the composition of blood. It discusses that blood is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It provides details on the formation and function of each blood component. For example, it states that erythrocytes carry oxygen, leukocytes defend against pathogens, and platelets initiate clotting. The document also covers hematopoiesis, blood cell development, and conditions like anemia.
Blood contains plasma and cellular components. Plasma is 55% water and contains nutrients, waste, hormones, and proteins. Cells include red blood cells carrying oxygen, various white blood cells that fight infection, and platelets that promote clotting. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it in tissues. White blood cells include granulocytes and agranulocytes that destroy pathogens. Platelets form plugs to stop bleeding through clotting factors and fibrin formation. Together these components transport substances, regulate pH and temperature, and protect the body.
Blood has three main functions: transportation, regulation, and protection. It is composed of blood plasma and formed elements, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen throughout the body, while white blood cells help protect against disease. Platelets help the blood clot to stop bleeding from injuries. Blood is produced through hematopoiesis, primarily in the red bone marrow, and circulates through the body in blood vessels at a temperature of 38°C with a pH of 7.35-7.45.
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The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
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2. Function of Circulatory System
Fundamental purpose of the circulatory system is to
transport substances from one place to another in the blood.
Functions of Circulatory System:
1. Transportation
-O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and heat
2. Protection
- role in inflammation = ↓ spread of infection
- white blood cells, antibodies, platelets;
3. Regulation
- Stabilize fluid distribution and pH
3. 18-3
Components & General Properties of
Blood
• Adults have 4-6 L of blood
– Contains two FORMED elements:
1. Plasma - a clear extracellular fluid
2. Formed Elements – cells and cell
fragments
6. 18-6
• Ratio of the formed elements to
plasma:
Accomplished by spinning a
sample of blood in a centifuge.
• Erythrocytes are densest,
typically 45% of total volume.
This is called the hematocrit or
packed cell volume.
• WBCs and platelets make up a
narrow zone (cream color)
called the buffy coat. About 1%
of total volume.
• Plasma about 55% of total
volume on top.
8. 18-8
Blood Plasma
Considered liquid connective tissue;
• Contains:
– Water
– Proteins
– Nutrients
– Electrolytes
– Nitrogenous wastes
– Hormones
– gases
Serum- when blood
clots and solids are
removed the
remaining fluid is
serum;
Serum is identical to
plasma except for the
absence of clotting
protein fibrinogen
10. 18-10
Plasma Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant plasma solute
by weight (6-9 g/dL)
Proteins play a variety of roles:
1. Clotting
2. Defense
3. Transport of solutes:
1. Iron
2. Copper
3. Lipids
4. Hormones
11. 18-11
Plasma Proteins
• 3 major categories of plasma proteins
1. albumins - most abundant
• Transports various solutes and buffer pH of plasma
• contributes to viscosity and osmolarity, influences blood
pressure, flow and fluid balance;
2. globulins (antibodies)
• provide immune system functions, transport, clotting
• alpha, beta and gamma globulins;
3. fibrinogen
• precursor of fibrin- a sticky protein that forms the
framework of a blood clot;
• Liver produces 4g protein/hour
12. 18-12
Nonprotein Components of Plasma
• Nitrogenous compounds
– amino acids
• from dietary protein or tissue breakdown
– nitrogenous wastes (urea)
• toxic end products of catabolism
• normally removed by the kidneys
• Nutrients
– glucose, vitamins, fats, minerals, phospholipids,
cholesterol;
• O2 and CO2 and nitrogen
• Electrolytes (another important component of plasma)
– Na+
makes up 90% of plasma cations
– Sodium is important for osmolarity of blood, influence on blood
volume and pressure.
14. 18-14
Blood Viscosity & Osmolarity
Two most important properties, arise from formed elements and plasma
composition.
• Viscosity - resistance of a fluid to flow resulting from a
cohesions of its particles.
• whole blood 5 times as viscous as water, due mainly to RBCs
• Plasma 2x as viscous as water, due to its proteins.
• Viscosity is important to circulatory function because it
partially governs the flow of blood through the vessels.
• RBC or protein deficiency = flows easily
• Excess of above = flows sluggishly
15. 18-15
Blood Viscosity & Osmolarity
• Osmolarity
– total molarity of dissolved particles that cannot
pass through the blood vessel walls.
– Nourishment of surrounding cells and waste
removal is dependent upon substances passing
through the capillary walls.
16. 18-16
Blood Viscosity & Osmolarity
high osmolarity (blood)
• causes fluid absorption into blood, raises BP
low osmolarity (blood)
• causes fluid to remain in tissues, may result in
edema, drop BP to dangerous levels because of the
amount of water lost from the blood stream.
• Osmolarity is a product of sodium ions,
protein, and RBCs
17. 18-17
Kwashiorkor
• Hypoproteinemia:
deficiency of plasma
protein.
– Extreme starvation
– Dietary protein deficiency
– Liver disease (synthesis)
– Kidney disease
– Severe burns
As protein content ↓ in
blood, = ↓ osmolarity =
bloodstream loses more
fluid to the tissues than it
reabsorbs by osmosis.
18. 18-18
How Blood is Produced
Hemopoiesis – production of blood (esp. elements)
• Adult produces 400 billion platelets, 200 billion RBCs and 10 billion WBCs
every day
• Hemopoietic tissues produce blood cells
Lymphocytes are also produced by lymphatic tissues and
organs (thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen)
– Blood formation in bone marrow = myeloid hemopoiesis
– Blood formation in lymphatic organs = lymphoid
hemopoiesis
19. How Blood is Produced
All fromed elements trace their origins to a common
type of bone marrow stem cell called pluripotent
stem cell (PPSC).
So named because they have the potential to
develop into multiple mature cell types.
21. 18-21
Form & Function
Disc-shaped cell with thick rim sunken center
– Lose most of organelles during development;
– Lack mitochondria, rely on anaerobic
fermentation to produce ATP – not aerobic
respiration;
– Lack nucleus and DNA = incapable of protein
synthesis and mitosis.
22. Form & Function
• Glycoproteins & glycolipids on surface
determine a persons blood type;
• Contain cytoskeletal proteins called spectrin
& actin give membrane resilience &
durability;
• Contains 33% hemoglobin:
– Purpose:
• oxygen transport,
• CO2 transport and
• buffering pH of blood
23. Form & Function
• Biconcave shape allows for a greater ratio of
surface to volume, this enables O2 and CO2 to
diffuse quickly to and from the hemoglobin.
• Cytoplasm contain CAH (Carbonic Anhydrase);
plays a role in gas transport & pH balance,
catalyzes …
CO2 + H2O H2CO3→
→
25. 18-25
Hemoglobin (Hb) Structure
• Contains 4 protein chains
called globins
– 2 alpha and 2 beta chains
• fetal Hb - gamma replace
beta chains; binds O2 better
• Each chain is conjugated
into a heme group (4 total)
– Binds O2 to Fe2+
at center;
• So… each hemoglobin
molecule can carry four O2
26. Quantities of Erythrocytes and Hemoglobin
• RBC count and hemoglobin concentration
indicate amount of O2 blood can carry;
3 common measurements are:
1. Hematocrit
2. hemoglobin concentration
3. RBC count
27. 18-27
Quantities of Erythrocytes and
Hemoglobin
Hematocrit (packed cell volume) - % of blood
composed of RBCs
• men 42- 52% cells; women 37- 48% cells
Hemoglobin concentration of whole blood
• men 13-18g/dL; women 12-16g/dL
RBC count
• men 4.6-6.2 million/µL; women 4-2-5.4 million/µL
• Values are lower in women
– androgens stimulate RBC production (higher in men);
– women have periodic menstrual losses;
– Hematocrit is inversely proportional to % body fat, which
is higher in women than men.
28. Erythrocyte Life Cycle
Average life span of a RBC is 120 days;
In a state of balance and stable RBC count,
birth to death of RBCs is about 2.5
million/sec or 20mL/day.
Erythrocyte production called Erythropoiesis
29. 18-29
Erythrocyte Production
Erythrocyte production called Erythropoiesis
• Development takes 3-5 days and Involves four
major developments:
1. reduction in cell size,
2. increase in cell number,
3. synthesis of hemoglobin, and
4. loss of nucleus and most organelles.
30. 18-30
Erythropoiesis
• Begins with pluripotent stem cell (PPSC) → commits to
becoming erythrocyte colony forming unit (ECFU).
• ECFU have receptors for erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys,
• EPO stimulates ECFU to transform into Erythroblasts;
• Erythroblasts multiply and synthesize hemoglobin;
• At this point the nucleus disappears becoming a reticulocyte;
• Enter circulation, in about a day or two they become mature
erythrocytes;
– Normally 0.5 to 1.5% of circulating RBCs are reticulocytes
– % will change in response to different situations.
31. 18-31
Iron Metabolism
• Fe2+
- key nutritional requirement for erythropoiesis;
• Iron is lost daily through urine, feces, and bleeding;
• men 0.9 mg/day and women 1.7 mg/day
• low absorption requires consumption of 5-20 mg/day
• Dietary iron exists in two forms:
1. ferric (Fe3+
) ions (not absorbable)
2. ferrous (Fe2+
) ions (absorbable by S.I.)
Stomach acid converts Fe3+
to absorbable Fe2+
32. Iron Metabolism
Once converted to Fe2+
it binds with a protein called
gastroferritin and transports it to small intestine for
absorption;
Fe2+
gets absorbed into the blood and binds to plasma protein
called transferrin for transport.
Transported to bone, liver and other tissures.
1. Bone marrow uses Fe2+
for hemoglobin synthesis;
2. Muscles use it to make the oxygen-storage protein myoglobin;
3. cells use it to make electron-transport molecules (cytochromes)
Once in the liver, the surplus iron binds with a protein called
apoferritin, forming a iron-storage complex called ferritin;
Liver will release iron as needed.
33.
34. 18-34
Nutritional Needs for Erythropoiesis
Vitamin B12 and folic acid
– rapid cell division & DNA synthesis
Vitamin C and Cu
– cofactors for enzymes synthesizing hemoglobin
35. 18-35
Erythrocyte Homeostasis
• Negative feedback control
– drop in RBC count causes
hypoxemia (low blood O2);
– Detected by kidneys, ↑ EPO;
– EPO stimulates erythroblast
production;
– RBC count ↑ in 3 - 4 days;
• Other stimulus for erythropoiesis
– low levels O2;
– increase in exercise;
Emphysema-loss of lung tissue,
could result in polycythemia.
36. Erythrocytes Death & Disposal
As RBC age its membrane proteins begin to break down
(spectrin), causing them to become fragile;
Since they lack a nucleus, ribosomes etc, they are unable to
synthesis more spectrin;
The RBC die in the spleen “erythrocyte grave-yard”;
The spleen is made up of narrow channels that test the ability
of older RBC to squeeze through;
If unable to squeeze through, they become trapped and
destroyed.
37. 18-37
Erythrocytes Death & Disposal
Hemolysis – rupture of RBCs = release hemoglobin
and leaves empty plasma membranes;
• Macrophages in spleen
– digest membrane bits
– separate heme from globin
• globins hydrolyzed into amino acids
• iron removed from heme
– heme pigment converted to biliverdin (green);
– biliverdin converted to bilirubin (yellow-green);
– Macrophages release bilirubin into blood plasma, which binds to
albumin;
– Liver removes it from the albumin, & sends it to the gall bladder;
» concentrated in gall bladder: released into small intestine;
bacteria create urobilinogen (brown feces)
39. 18-39
Erythrocyte Disorders
1. Polycythemia - an excess of RBCs
– primary polycythemia
• cancer of erythropoietic cell line in red bone marrow
– RBC count as high as 11 million/µL; hematocrit 80%
– secondary polycythemia
• from dehydration, smoking, emphysema, high altitude,
or physical conditioning
– RBC count up to 8 million/µL
• Dangers of polycythemia
– increased blood volume, pressure, viscosity
• can lead to embolism, stroke or heart failure
40. Erythrocyte Disorders
2. Anemia
Three Catagories:
1. Inadaquate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin
synthesis;
2. Hemorrhagic anemia – from prolonged
bleeding;
3. Hemolytic anemia – from RBC destruction
42. 18-42
Anemia
Three Potential Consequences:
1.Tissue hypoxia and necrosis
- shortness of breath and lethargic
- skin pallid due to hemoglobin deficiency
- severe anemic hypoxia = life threatening
- lead to necrosis of brain, heart, kidneys
2. Blood osmolarity is reduced (tissue edema)
3. Blood viscosity is reduced (blood puts up less resistance to
flow so the heart beats faster than normal and cardiac failure can occur
and pressure drops)
43. 18-43
Sickle-Cell Disease
• Hereditary Hb ‘defect’ of African Americans
– sickle-cell trait -
• individual has resistance to malaria
– sickle-cell disease
• individual has shortened life
– in low O2 concentrations HbS causes cell elongation and sickle
shape
– cell stickiness causes agglutination and blocked vessels
– intense pain; kidney and heart failure; paralysis; stroke
45. 18-45
Blood Types
• Based on the interactions between antigens and
antibodies
• Antigens
– unique molecules on cell surface
• used to distinguish self from foreign
• foreign antigens generate immune response
• Antibodies
– secreted by plasma cells
• as part of immune response to foreign matter
• Agglutination
– antibody molecule binding to antigens
– causes clumping
– Repetition of this process produces large antigen-antibody complexes
46. 18-46
ABO Group
• A, B, AB, and O form ABO blood type.
Your blood type is determined by the hereditary presence or
absence of antigen A or antigen B on your RBCs.
Antibodies of the ABO group react against any A or B
antigens on the RBC surface.
- causing clumping (agglutination)
47. 18-47
ABO Group
• Your ABO blood type is determined by
presence or absence of antigens on RBCs
– type A person has A antigens
– type B person has B antigens
– type AB has both A & Bantigens
– type O has no antigens
• most common - type O
• rarest - type AB
49. ABO Group
The antibody that reacts with antigen A is called
alpha agglutinin or anti A.
The antibody that reacts with antigen B is called beta
agglutinin or anti B.
To determine ones blood type, a drop of blood is put
in a pool of anti A serum and anti B serum;
Looking for agglutination.
51. 18-51
ABO Group
• Person with type A (anti-B) blood
– Never receive from Type B or AB
• Person with type B (anti-A) blood
– Never receive from Type A or AB
• Person with type O (anti-A and Anti-B) blood
– Never receive from Type A, B, or AB
52. Type A Type B Type AB
Type O
RBC: antigen A antigen B antigens A,B none
Plasma: anti-B anti-A none anti-A,
antibodies antibodies anti-B
antibodies
Blood Types
55. 18-55
Universal Donors and Recipients
• Universal donor
– Type O
– lacks RBC antigens
• Universal recipient
– Type AB
– lacks plasma antibodies; no anti- A or B
56. 18-56
Leukocytes (WBCs)
• 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs/µL
• Conspicuous nucleus
• Travel in blood before migrating to
connective tissue
• Protect against pathogens
57. 18-57
Leukocyte Descriptions
• Granulocytes
– neutrophils (60-70%) (aka polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
• fine granules in cytoplasm; 3 to 5 lobed nucleus
– eosinophils (2-4%)
• large rosy-orange granules; bilobed nucleus
– basophils (<1%)
• large, abundant, violet granules (obscure a large S-shaped
nucleus)
• Agranulocytes
– lymphocytes (25-33%)
• variable amounts of bluish cytoplasm (scanty to abundant);
ovoid/round, uniform dark violet nucleus
– monocytes (3-8%)
• largest WBC; ovoid, kidney-, or horseshoe- shaped nucleus
59. Granulocyte Functions
• Eosinophils (↑ in parasitic infections, allergies, diseases of spleen and
CNS)
– phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes,
allergens and inflammatory chemicals
– release enzymes to destroy parasites
62. 18-62
Agranulocyte Functions
• Lymphocytes (↑ in diverse infections and immune
responses)
– destroy cells (cancer, foreign, and virally infected cells)
– “present” antigens to activate other immune cells
– coordinate actions of other immune cells
– secrete antibodies and provide immune memory
63. Agranulocyte Functions
• Monocytes (↑ in viral infections and inflammation)
– differentiate into macrophages
– phagocytize pathogens and debris
– “present” antigens to activate other immune cells
65. 18-65
Complete Blood Count
• Hematocrit
• Hemoglobin concentration
• Total count for RBCs, reticulocytes, WBCs,
and platelets
• Differential WBC count
• RBC size and hemoglobin concentration per
RBC
66. 18-66
Leukocyte Life Cycle
• Leukopoiesis- production of WBC
– Begins with pluripotent stem cell – that differentiates into
distinct type of colony-forming units (CFU);
– CFU Types:
• Eosinophilic CFU, Basophilic CFU, neurtophilic CFU, monocytic CFU, and
lymphocytic CFU.
– CFU differentiate into specific cell lines:
• myeloblasts – differentiate into neutrophils, eosinophils, basophil
• monoblasts – differentiate into monocytes
• lymphoblasts differentriate into B and T lymphocytes and NK
cells
68. • Red bone marrow stores and releases
granulocytes and monocytes until needed.
• Circulating WBCs do not stay in bloodstream
– granulocytes circulate for 8 hours and then migrate into
the tissues & live for about 5 days;
– monocytes circulate for about 10-20 hours, migrate ino
the tissues, transform into macrophages and live for
several years;
– WBCs provide long-term immunity (decades)
69. 18-69
Leukocyte Disorders
• Normal WBC count is 5000 – 10,000 WBC/µL
• Leukopenia - low WBC count (<5000/µL)
– causes: radiation sickness, lead, mercury poisoning,
infectious disease (MMR, varicella, polio, AIDS), anti-
cancer drugs
– effects: elevated risk of infection and cancer
• Leukocytosis = high WBC count (>10,000/µL)
– causes: infection, allergy and disease, dehydration and
emotional disturbances.
– differential count - distinguishes % of each cell type
• High neurtophil = bacterial infection, ie appendicitis
• High eosinophil = allergy or parasitic infection, ie tapeworm
70. 18-70
Leukocyte Disorders
• Leukemia = cancer of hemopoietic tissue
– Increase of circulating leukocytes and their
precursors
• Treatment = chemo, marrow transplant
along with controlled side effects such as
anemia, hemorrhaging, and infection.
72. Platelets & Hemostasis-Control of bleeding
Hemostasis – cessation of bleeding (stop the
bleeding);
Platelets may not stop the hemorrhaging of
large vessels but are effective on closing
smaller vessels.
73. 18-73
Platelets
• Not cells but small fragments of marrow cells
called megakaryocytes;
• Normal Count - 130,000 to 400,000 platelets/µL
• Internal structures include:
– lysosomes,
– mitochondria,
– granules (filled with platelet secretions),
– Platelet Production -Thrombopoiesis
74. Platelet Functions
1. Secrete vasoconstrictors- chemical that causes
spasmodic contraction of broken blood vessels;
2. Stick together to form a temporary platelet plug;
3. Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors);
75. 18-75
Platelet Production -Thrombopoiesis
• Stem cells develop receptors for the hormone
thrombopoietin, thus becoming megakaryoblasts;
• Megakaryoblasts
– repeatedly replicate DNA without dividing cytoplasm;
– Result is a gigantic cell called megakaryocyte;
• Megakaryocyte
– infoldings of cytoplasm splits off cell fragments that
enter bloodstream as platelets, those live for 10 days;
– 25 – 40% are stored in spleen & released as needed.
77. 18-77
1. Hemostasis - Vascular Spasm (Immediate)
• Causes
– pain receptors
• some directly innervate nearby blood vessels,
causing constriction
– Injury to smooth muscle will vasoconstrict
– platelets release serotonin (vasoconstrictor)
• Effects
– prompt constriction of a broken vessel
• pain receptors - short duration (minutes)
– provides time for other two clotting pathways
78. 18-78
2. Hemostasis -Platelet Plug Formation
• Endothelium smooth, coated with prostacyclin
• Platelet plug formation
– broken vessel exposes collagen
– platelet pseudopods stick to damaged vessel and other platelets
– pseudopods contract and draw walls of vessel together forming a
platelet plug
As platelets aggregate they degranulate releasing factors that
promote hemostasis;
• serotonin is a vasoconstrictor
• ADP attracts and degranulates more platelets
• thromboxane A2, promotes aggregation, degranulation and
vasoconstriction
– positive feedback cycle is active until break in vessel is sealed
80. 18-80
3. Hemostasis - Coagulation
• Coagulation (clotting) - most effective defense
against bleeding
– Conversion of the plasma protein fibrinogen into fibrin
threads to form framework of clot;
• Two reaction mechanisms to coagulation:
1.Extrinsic Mechanism
2.Intrinsic Mechanism
81. Coagulation
Extrinsic Mechanism:
- initiated by clotting factors released by damaged blood vessel and
perivascular tissues;
- extrinsic mean that these factors came from a source other then the
blood.
Intrinsic Mechanism:
- clotting factors that are in the blood.
These clotting factors are called procoagulants, most are proteins that are
in an inactive form, until one is activated, thus activating the next one
and so on,
Producing a reaction cascade – a series of reactions.
82. 18-82
Coagulation Pathways
• Extrinsic pathway
– initiated by tissue
thromboplastin;
– cascade to factor VII, V
and X (fewer steps),
– 15 seconds to start clot.
• Intrinsic pathway
– Everything needed to
initiate it is present in
the plasma or platelets;
– initiated by factor XII;
– cascade to factor XI to
IX to VIII to X;
– 3-6 minutes for clot to
form.
• Calcium required for
either pathway
Fibrinogen
83. 18-83
Completion of Coagulation
• Activation of Factor X
– leads to production of prothrombin activator
• Prothrombin activator
– converts prothrombin to thrombin
• Thrombin
– converts fibrinogen into fibrin
84.
85. 18-85
Fate of Blood Clots
• After clot has formed the platelet pseudopods adhere to the
fibrin and contract = drawing edges of blood vessels
together
Clot retraction occurs within 30 minutes
• Platelets & endothelial cells secrete:
– Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) which is a …
– mitotic stimulant for fibroblasts and smooth muscle to multiply and
repair damaged vessel;
87. 18-87
Prevention of Inappropriate Clotting
1. Platelet repulsion
– platelets do not adhere to prostacyclin-coated
endothelium of undamaged blood vessels;
2. Dilution
– Small amounts of thrombin form spontaneously in
plasma;
– At normal rate of blood flow the thrombin is diluted;
• heart slowing in shock can result in clot formation
3. Natural anticoagulants
– heparin (from basophils and mast cells) interferes with
formation of prothrombin activator
– antithrombin (from liver) deactivates thrombin before it can
act on fibrinogen
88. 18-88
Hemophilia
• Genetic lack of any clotting factor affects
coagulation
• TYPES:
– hemophilia A missing factor VIII (83% of cases)
– hemophilia B missing factor IX (15% of cases)
• Physical exertion causes bleeding and
excruciating pain
– transfusion of plasma or purified clotting factors
– factor VIII produced by transgenic bacteria
89. 18-89
Coagulation Disorders
• Embolism - clot traveling in a vessel
• Thrombosis - abnormal clotting in unbroken
vessel
– most likely to occur in leg veins of inactive
people
– pulmonary embolism - clot may break free,
travel from veins to lungs
• Infarction may occur if clot blocks blood
supply to an organ (MI or stroke)
– 650,000 Americans die annually of
thromboembolism