The document discusses network models and the layered approach used in networking. It describes the five layers of the Internet model (physical, data link, network, transport, application) and the responsibilities of each layer. The physical layer transmits individual bits, the data link layer transmits frames between nodes, the network layer delivers packets from source to destination across multiple networks, the transport layer delivers messages from one process to another, and the application layer provides services to the user. It also discusses the OSI 7-layer model and compares it to the TCP/IP layers. Examples are provided to illustrate communication between the layers.
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
Point to point protocol | PPP - Nitish JadiaNitish Jadia
This slide covers point to point protocol and takes most of the points straight from the RFC. This slide covers in-depth flags and headers used in PPP.
In this we discuss about DATA RATE LIMITS
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
Nyquist bit rate for a noiseless channel
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log 2 L
2: Shannon Capacity for a noisy channel
Capacity = bandwidth * log 2 (1 + SNR)
...............
PERFORMANCE (Network PERFORMANCE) :
Bandwidth: ( Bandwidth in Hertz and Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds) :
Throughput:
These above topics covered in this slide
Thanks You!
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.
Motivation for a specialized MAC (Hidden and exposed terminals, Near and far terminals), SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, Wireless LAN/(IEEE 802.11)
Mobile Network Layer: IP and Mobile IP Network Layers, Packet Delivery and Handover Management, Location Management, Registration, Tunneling and Encapsulation, Route Optimization, DHCP
The TCP/IP protocol suite does not define any protocol in the data-link layer or
physical layer. These two layers are territories of networks that when connected
make up the Internet. These networks, wired or wireless, provide services to the upper
three layers of the TCP/IP suite. This may give us a clue that there are several standard
protocols in the market today. For this reason, we discuss the data-link layer in several
chapters. This chapter is an introduction that gives the general idea and common issues
in the data-link layer that relate to all networks.
❑ The first section introduces the data-link layer. It starts with defining the concept
of links and nodes. The section then lists and briefly describes the services provided
by the data-link layer. It next defines two categories of links: point-to-point
and broadcast links. The section finally defines two sublayers at the data-link layer
that will be elaborated on in the next few chapters.
❑ The second section discusses link-layer addressing. It first explains the rationale
behind the existence of an addressing mechanism at the data-link layer. It then
describes three types of link-layer addresses to be found in some link-layer protocols.
The section discusses the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which maps
the addresses at the network layer to addresses at the data-link layer. This protocol
helps a packet at the network layer find the link-layer address of the next node for
delivery of the frame that encapsulates the packet. To show how the network layer
helps us to find the data-link-layer addresses, a long example is included in this
section that shows what happens at each node when a packet is travelling through
the Internet.
Point to point protocol | PPP - Nitish JadiaNitish Jadia
This slide covers point to point protocol and takes most of the points straight from the RFC. This slide covers in-depth flags and headers used in PPP.
In this we discuss about DATA RATE LIMITS
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
Nyquist bit rate for a noiseless channel
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log 2 L
2: Shannon Capacity for a noisy channel
Capacity = bandwidth * log 2 (1 + SNR)
...............
PERFORMANCE (Network PERFORMANCE) :
Bandwidth: ( Bandwidth in Hertz and Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds) :
Throughput:
These above topics covered in this slide
Thanks You!
Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.
Motivation for a specialized MAC (Hidden and exposed terminals, Near and far terminals), SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, Wireless LAN/(IEEE 802.11)
Mobile Network Layer: IP and Mobile IP Network Layers, Packet Delivery and Handover Management, Location Management, Registration, Tunneling and Encapsulation, Route Optimization, DHCP
The TCP/IP protocol suite does not define any protocol in the data-link layer or
physical layer. These two layers are territories of networks that when connected
make up the Internet. These networks, wired or wireless, provide services to the upper
three layers of the TCP/IP suite. This may give us a clue that there are several standard
protocols in the market today. For this reason, we discuss the data-link layer in several
chapters. This chapter is an introduction that gives the general idea and common issues
in the data-link layer that relate to all networks.
❑ The first section introduces the data-link layer. It starts with defining the concept
of links and nodes. The section then lists and briefly describes the services provided
by the data-link layer. It next defines two categories of links: point-to-point
and broadcast links. The section finally defines two sublayers at the data-link layer
that will be elaborated on in the next few chapters.
❑ The second section discusses link-layer addressing. It first explains the rationale
behind the existence of an addressing mechanism at the data-link layer. It then
describes three types of link-layer addresses to be found in some link-layer protocols.
The section discusses the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which maps
the addresses at the network layer to addresses at the data-link layer. This protocol
helps a packet at the network layer find the link-layer address of the next node for
delivery of the frame that encapsulates the packet. To show how the network layer
helps us to find the data-link-layer addresses, a long example is included in this
section that shows what happens at each node when a packet is travelling through
the Internet.
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
TCP/IP have 5 layers, whereas OSI model have 7 layers in its Model. TCP/IP is known for the secured connection and comunication. I have explained all functions and definitions of layers in TCP/IP Model
all about osi model and its layer which contain seven layer that is application ,presentation ,session ,transport ,networking, data link and physical layer . osi is appected by all and it was introduced by iso (indian standard organisation). osi is accepted by all over the world its best for networking which tell about all layer working .
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
3. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 3
Network Models
Networks require a combination of
hardware and software to send data from
one location to another
To make communications efficient, many
components are involved, each with a
specific function or service
4. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 4
Layered Tasks
Hierarchy
The complex task is broken into smaller subtasks
Services
The higher layer uses the services of the lower
layer
5. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 5
Example of Person-to-person communication
Cognitive : Defines purpose of message exchange
Linguistic : Provides common language
Physical : Physically transmits information
between users
7. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 7
Internet Model
Dominant model in data communications and
networking
5 ordered layers; often referred to as TCP/IP
protocol suite
8. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 8
Internet Model Layers
Each layer defines distinct functions
Each layer calls services of layer just below and
provides services to layer just above
Between machines, corresponding layers
communicate (i.e. network to network; transport
to transport, etc.) are called peer-to-peer
processes
This communication is governed by protocols
12. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 12
Physical Layer Responsibilities
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
Representation of bits without interpretation
Data rate: number of bits per second
Synchronization of bits
13. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 13
The physical layer is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.
Note:Note:
15. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 15
Data Link Layer Responsibilities
Defines frames into manageable data units
Physical addressing
Flow control
Error control
Access control
16. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 16
The data link layer is responsible for
transmitting frames from
one node to the next.
Note:Note:
18. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 18
Example 1Example 1
In below figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a
node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a
link. At the data link level this frame contains physical addresses in
the header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest of the
header contains other information needed at this level. The trailer
usually contains extra bits needed for error detection
20. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 20
Network Layer Responsibilities
If the two systems are attached to different
networks with connecting devices between the
networks, there is often a need for the network
layer
Source-to-destination delivery, possibly across
multiple networks
Logical addressing
Routing
21. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 21
The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of packets from the
original source to the
final destination.
Note:Note:
23. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 23
Example 2Example 2
In Figure 2.11 we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a network address P and
physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this
characteristic.
26. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 26
Transport Layer Responsibilities
Process-to-process delivery of entire message
Port addressing
Segmentation and reassembly
Connection control: connectionless or
connection-oriented
End-to-end flow control
End-to-end error control
27. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 27
The transport layer is responsible for
delivery of a message from one process
to another.
Note:Note:
29. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 29
Example 3Example 3
Figure 2.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.
32. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 32
Application Layer Responsibilities
Enables user access to the network
User interfaces and support for services such as
E-Mail
File transfer and access
Remote log-in
WWW
33. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 33
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
Note:Note:
35. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 35
OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection model
7 layer theoretical model of how a protocol stack
should be implemented
37. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 37
OSI model define two extra layers
Session layer: network dialog controller; establish,
maintain, and synchronize communications
between systems
Presentation layer: To handle the syntax and
semantics of the information exchange between
the two systems.
data translation
encryption/decryption
compression
These duties are often handled by other layers
now, hence the Internet model
40. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 40
OSI vs TCP/IP
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical Hardware
Firmware
Software
OperatingSystemUserspace
OSI TCP/IP
41. Some common data communications standards
Layer Common Standards
5. Application layer HTTP, HTML (Web)
MPEG, H.323 (audio/video)
IMAP, POP (e-mail)
4. Transport layer TCP (Internet)
SPX (Novell LANs)
3. Network layer IP (Internet)
IPX (Novell LANs)
2. Data link layer Ethernet (LAN)
PPP (dial-up via modem)
1. Physical layer RS-232c cable (LAN)
Category 5 twisted pair (LAN)
V.92 (56 kbps modem)
43. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 43
Information Format
Frame
An information unit whose source and
destination are data link layer entities
Composed of the data link layer header (trailer)
and upper-layer data
Data link layerData link layer
headerheader
Data link layerData link layer
trailertrailer
Upper layer dataUpper layer data
Frame
44. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 44
Information Format Layer (cont.)
Packet
An information unit whose source and
destination are network layer entities
Composed of the network layer header (trailer)
and upper-layer data
Network layerNetwork layer
headerheader
Network layerNetwork layer
trailertrailer
Upper layer dataUpper layer data
Packet
45. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 45
Information Format Layer (cont.)
Datagram
Usually refers to an information unit whose source
and destination are network layer entities that use
connectionless network service
Segment
Refers to an information unit whose source and
destination are transport layer entities
Message
An information unit whose source and destination
entities exist above the network layer (often at the
application layer)
46. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 46
Information Format Layer (cont.)
Cell
An information unit of a fixed size whose source
and destination are data link layer entities
Cells are used in switched environments, such
as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS)
network.
Cell header (5Cell header (5
bytes)bytes)
PayloadPayload
(48 bytes)(48 bytes)
Cell
53 bytes
47. 4123702 Data Communications System @YRU 47
Credits
All figures obtained from publisher-provided
instructor downloads
Data Communications and Networking, 3rd edition by
Behrouz A. Forouzan. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2004