The document discusses the use of chemographic diagrams to represent mineral assemblages in metamorphic rocks. It introduces the concept of projecting mineral compositions onto simpler ternary diagrams defined by pseudo-components in order to visualize complex metamorphic mineral systems involving many major elements. Specific diagrams discussed include the ACF diagram for mafic rocks and the AKF diagram for pelitic rocks, which both project the major element compositions onto three-dimensional diagrams to illustrate stable mineral assemblages. The document also discusses techniques for choosing appropriate pseudo-components and the limitations of using projected diagrams to represent full mineral systems.
The Stratigraphic Code establishes rules for naming and defining stratigraphic units. There are two versions of the code from the North American and International commissions. Stratigraphic units are categorized based on physical characteristics and time, and include lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, and others. Proper naming of a new unit requires publication and establishing type sections and boundaries.
This document discusses seismic stratigraphy, which uses seismic data to extract stratigraphic information about subsurface rock layers. It defines seismic waves and methods, including refraction and reflection. Reflection seismic is more commonly used to identify structures like folds and faults beneath the surface. Key parameters for interpretation are reflection configuration, continuity, amplitude, frequency, and interval velocity. Depositional environments are also identified based on their relationship to the wave base.
1. The Palaeozoic succession of Spiti, India contains a complete record of marine sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian.
2. The succession includes the Haimanta Group (Cambrian), Thango Formation (Ordovician), Takche Formation (Silurian), Muth Formation (Devonian), Kanawar Group (Carboniferous), and Kuling Group (Permian).
3. These sedimentary rocks comprise limestones, dolomites, shales, quartzites, and sandstones that provide a rich fossil record documenting the evolution of life during the Palaeozoic era in the region.
The document discusses ore formation systems and processes. It describes how ores were originally thought to form mainly from the cooling and crystallization of magmatic bodies. It then explains that four main ore formation processes are recognized: 1) orthomagmatic processes related to magma evolution and crystallization, 2) hydrothermal processes involving mineralization from magmatic fluids, 3) sedimentary processes concentrating metals through weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and 4) metamorphic processes transforming existing ore deposits. The document provides details on each of these processes and how they concentrate metals to form economic mineral deposits.
Climbing ripple laminations are formed by the superimposition of migrating ripples where deposition occurs rapidly during ripple migration, causing the ripples to climb upon one another rather than migrate laterally. They are classified based on the angle of climbing relative to the stoss side angle, and form under conditions of abundant suspended sediment supply and rapid burial, preserving the original rippled layers. Climbing ripples indicate deposition exceeded migration and are found in environments with high sedimentation rates like river floodplains, point bars, and deltas.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
The document discusses biostratigraphic classification and units. It defines biostratigraphy as correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata based on fossil assemblages. The purpose is to systematically organize rock strata into named units based on fossil content and distribution. Biostratigraphic units are distinguished by differences in fossil content. Common types of biostratigraphic units include range zones defined by the range of a taxon, assemblage zones based on an assemblage of fossil taxa, and lineage zones representing a segment of an evolutionary lineage.
The Stratigraphic Code establishes rules for naming and defining stratigraphic units. There are two versions of the code from the North American and International commissions. Stratigraphic units are categorized based on physical characteristics and time, and include lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, and others. Proper naming of a new unit requires publication and establishing type sections and boundaries.
This document discusses seismic stratigraphy, which uses seismic data to extract stratigraphic information about subsurface rock layers. It defines seismic waves and methods, including refraction and reflection. Reflection seismic is more commonly used to identify structures like folds and faults beneath the surface. Key parameters for interpretation are reflection configuration, continuity, amplitude, frequency, and interval velocity. Depositional environments are also identified based on their relationship to the wave base.
1. The Palaeozoic succession of Spiti, India contains a complete record of marine sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian.
2. The succession includes the Haimanta Group (Cambrian), Thango Formation (Ordovician), Takche Formation (Silurian), Muth Formation (Devonian), Kanawar Group (Carboniferous), and Kuling Group (Permian).
3. These sedimentary rocks comprise limestones, dolomites, shales, quartzites, and sandstones that provide a rich fossil record documenting the evolution of life during the Palaeozoic era in the region.
The document discusses ore formation systems and processes. It describes how ores were originally thought to form mainly from the cooling and crystallization of magmatic bodies. It then explains that four main ore formation processes are recognized: 1) orthomagmatic processes related to magma evolution and crystallization, 2) hydrothermal processes involving mineralization from magmatic fluids, 3) sedimentary processes concentrating metals through weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and 4) metamorphic processes transforming existing ore deposits. The document provides details on each of these processes and how they concentrate metals to form economic mineral deposits.
Climbing ripple laminations are formed by the superimposition of migrating ripples where deposition occurs rapidly during ripple migration, causing the ripples to climb upon one another rather than migrate laterally. They are classified based on the angle of climbing relative to the stoss side angle, and form under conditions of abundant suspended sediment supply and rapid burial, preserving the original rippled layers. Climbing ripples indicate deposition exceeded migration and are found in environments with high sedimentation rates like river floodplains, point bars, and deltas.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
The document discusses biostratigraphic classification and units. It defines biostratigraphy as correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata based on fossil assemblages. The purpose is to systematically organize rock strata into named units based on fossil content and distribution. Biostratigraphic units are distinguished by differences in fossil content. Common types of biostratigraphic units include range zones defined by the range of a taxon, assemblage zones based on an assemblage of fossil taxa, and lineage zones representing a segment of an evolutionary lineage.
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
The document discusses various depositional environments and their diagnostic criteria. It describes fluvial, aeolian, lacustrine, and glacial environments. Fluvial environments include features like meandering rivers, levees, and crevasse splays. Aeolian environments are characterized by dune types and loess deposits. Lacustrine deposits show rhythmic bedding and contain fossils. Glacial environments involve ice transport and deposition of unsorted sediments. Diagnostic criteria allow identifying depositional environments based on structures, fossils, and sediment characteristics.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
The document provides an overview of the Paleozoic era, which began approximately 542 million years ago and lasted around 290 million years. Some key points:
- Suitable time for organic evolution of both flora and fauna. Rocks from this era are less deformed, providing good sections for research.
- In India, Paleozoic rocks are mainly found in the Himalayan region and isolated basins in the peninsula. Stratigraphy has been determined along river sections in the Himalayas.
- Life included early plants, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, ostracods
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
The document discusses sedimentary facies and their relationship to sea level changes. It defines sedimentary facies as aspects of rock units defined by their composition, texture, and fossil content that indicate the environment of deposition. There are two main types of facies - lithofacies defined by composition and texture, and biofacies defined by fossil content. Sedimentary facies change laterally and vertically according to sea level changes - during transgression facies shift onshore and during regression facies shift offshore. Vertical sequences of facies represent once laterally continuous environments (Walther's Law). Major causes of sea level change include continental glaciation, plate tectonics, and local geological changes.
Migmatites are mixed rocks formed near large granite intrusions when magma is injected into neighboring metamorphic rock. They contain a paleosome of unaltered parent rock and a neosome of newly formed rock that may be leucocratic or melanocratic. Migmatites exhibit a variety of structures depending on the degree of melting, including dietzonic, schollen, phlebitic, stromatic, and folded structures. They are associated with high-temperature metamorphic facies and often found in close association with other high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common uses include cement manufacture, road aggregate, and building stone.
Ichnology,classification & significance of trace fossilUjjavalPatel16
Ichnology,classification& significance of trace fossil
Most trace fossils are largely facies dependant.
No secondary displacement or transport.
Trace fossils are common in rocks that otherwise are unfossiliferous. (siliciclastics, shorelines)
Non-preservation of the causative organism.
Multiple architects may produce a single structure.
The same individual can produce different structures corresponding to different behavior.
The same individual may produce different structures corresponding with identical behavior but in different substrates.
Identical structures may be produced by the activity of systematically different organisms where behavior is similar.
Abundance - one animal, especially if mobile, can make many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not have its body preserved in the fossil record.
A sedimentary facies is a body of rock or sediment that is characterized by particular attributes that distinguish it from adjacent rock bodies. These attributes include lithology, color, texture, sedimentary structures, mineral/fossil content, and bed geometry. Together these attributes provide clues about the depositional environment. Different facies reflect different environments, such as beach/shallow marine facies indicating sandstone and offshore marine facies indicating shale. Facies analysis studies these attributes to interpret depositional environments and geological history at various scales.
This document discusses the Dharwar Super Group found in the Dharwar Craton of India. The Dharwar Craton is divided into the Western and Eastern Dharwar cratons, separated by the Chitradurga shear zone. The Western Dharwar craton contains two prominent super belts: the Bababudan-Western Ghats-Shimoga super belt and the Chitradurga-Gadag super belt, which are part of the Dharwar super group. The Eastern Dharwar craton also contains formations from the Dharwar super group, divided into the Kolar and Yashwantanagar formations. The document concludes that the Dharwar super
The document discusses the lowstand systems tract (LST), defining it as deposits that accumulate after the onset of relative sea-level rise during a period of early rise and normal regression. The LST includes fluvial, coastal, shallow marine, and deep marine deposits characterized by progradation or retrogradation. Key points covered include the depositional processes and products of each environment within the LST, as well as the economic potential of LST deposits for reservoirs and placer deposits.
1) Sequence stratigraphic surfaces are defined relative to curves describing base-level changes and shoreline shifts. These surfaces include subaerial unconformities, correlative conformities, the basal surface of forced regression, and transgressive ravinement surfaces.
2) Maximum regressive surfaces mark the change from shoreline regression to transgression, while maximum flooding surfaces separate retrograding strata below from prograding strata above.
3) Subaerial unconformities form during base-level fall and correlate to the largest stratigraphic hiatuses. Correlative conformities form at the end of base-level fall, separating forced regressive deposits from lowstand deposits.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
Stratigraphy of Layered mafic Intrusions in the The Stillwater complexSharik Shamsudhien
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and characteristics of the Stillwater Complex, a layered mafic intrusion in Montana. It describes the different rock series that make up the Complex from bottom to top, including a Basal Series containing ores, an Ultramafic Series with peridotite and orthopyroxenite zones exhibiting rhythmic layering, and a Banded Series containing norites and gabbros. It notes the Complex was uplifted and eroded, exposing its steeply dipping layers. The document also provides general characteristics of layered intrusions, such as their perpendicular layering that can be cryptic or rhythmic and extend over large areas.
This document discusses ore deposits and the fluids involved in their formation. It covers five main types of ore-bearing fluids: 1) magmas and magmatic fluids, 2) meteoric waters, 3) connate waters, 4) fluids associated with metamorphic processes. It then discusses the migration of ore-bearing fluids through rocks, noting that permeability and porosity allow fluids to circulate over long periods of time. Metals can also migrate in the colloidal state within fluids. The document provides an overview of the key fluids and processes involved in forming various ore deposit types.
Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. It is classified based on several properties including genesis, texture, color, and chemical composition. Based on genesis, igneous rocks are classified as plutonic (cooled at depth), hypabyssal (cooled at shallow depth), or volcanic (cooled on the surface). Texture classifications include phaneritic, aphenitic, porphyritic, and poikilitic. Color classifications are based on the percentage of mafic minerals and include leucocratic, mesocratic, melanocratic, and hypermelanic. Chemical composition classifications include peraluminous, metaaluminous, subaluminous, and several
Shear zones are zones of highly strained rock that form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. They record a history of deformation and can indicate the sense and amount of displacement. There are several types of shear zones defined by the dominant deformation mechanism (brittle, ductile, semibrittle, brittle-ductile). Determining the sense of shear is important and can be achieved through studying offset markers, foliation patterns, shear bands, inclusion shapes, and other indicators exposed in the shear zone.
Sequence stratigraphy and its applicationsPramoda Raj
Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock strata in terms of depositional sequences that are genetically related and bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. It was pioneered by James Hutton in 1788 and further developed by researchers like Sloss and Vail to understand global eustatic sea level changes and their control on sediment deposition. Key concepts include systems tracts like transgressive, highstand, and parasequences which are building blocks of sequences. Sequence stratigraphy is useful for basin analysis, hydrocarbon exploration, and understanding past sea level fluctuations. Case studies have applied it to outcrops and subsurface sediments.
This document defines sequence stratigraphy and discusses its basic concepts. Sequence stratigraphy studies genetically related rock units bounded by unconformities. It is based on dividing strata into sequences bounded by sea level changes. Key concepts discussed include depositional sequences, parasequences, flooding surfaces, system tracts, accommodation space, and the importance of sequence stratigraphy for understanding basin evolution and resource exploration.
This document discusses phase diagrams and their classification. It begins by defining key terms like phases, components, solutions, and mixtures. It then explains Gibbs phase rule and how it relates the number of phases (P) to components (C) and degrees of freedom (F). Equilibrium phase diagrams are introduced as diagrams that depict phase existence under equilibrium conditions as a function of temperature and composition. Different types of phase diagrams are classified, including unary, binary, and ternary systems. Specific binary systems like eutectic and isomorphous systems are discussed in more detail. Important concepts like invariant reactions, intermediate phases, lever rule, and cooling curves are also summarized. The Fe-C binary phase diagram is provided as a detailed
This document discusses different types of metasomatism classified based on metasomatic processes and geological position. There are two main types of metasomatic processes - diffusional metasomatism which occurs through diffusion, and infiltrational metasomatism which occurs through the transfer of materials in solution. The geological positions discussed include autometasomatism near magmatic bodies, contact metasomatism at contacts between bodies, and regional metasomatism over large areas. Specific metasomatic rock types are also summarized like fenite, greisens, and skarns, which are important in studying ore deposits.
The document discusses various depositional environments and their diagnostic criteria. It describes fluvial, aeolian, lacustrine, and glacial environments. Fluvial environments include features like meandering rivers, levees, and crevasse splays. Aeolian environments are characterized by dune types and loess deposits. Lacustrine deposits show rhythmic bedding and contain fossils. Glacial environments involve ice transport and deposition of unsorted sediments. Diagnostic criteria allow identifying depositional environments based on structures, fossils, and sediment characteristics.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
The document provides an overview of the Paleozoic era, which began approximately 542 million years ago and lasted around 290 million years. Some key points:
- Suitable time for organic evolution of both flora and fauna. Rocks from this era are less deformed, providing good sections for research.
- In India, Paleozoic rocks are mainly found in the Himalayan region and isolated basins in the peninsula. Stratigraphy has been determined along river sections in the Himalayas.
- Life included early plants, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, ostracods
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
The document discusses sedimentary facies and their relationship to sea level changes. It defines sedimentary facies as aspects of rock units defined by their composition, texture, and fossil content that indicate the environment of deposition. There are two main types of facies - lithofacies defined by composition and texture, and biofacies defined by fossil content. Sedimentary facies change laterally and vertically according to sea level changes - during transgression facies shift onshore and during regression facies shift offshore. Vertical sequences of facies represent once laterally continuous environments (Walther's Law). Major causes of sea level change include continental glaciation, plate tectonics, and local geological changes.
Migmatites are mixed rocks formed near large granite intrusions when magma is injected into neighboring metamorphic rock. They contain a paleosome of unaltered parent rock and a neosome of newly formed rock that may be leucocratic or melanocratic. Migmatites exhibit a variety of structures depending on the degree of melting, including dietzonic, schollen, phlebitic, stromatic, and folded structures. They are associated with high-temperature metamorphic facies and often found in close association with other high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common uses include cement manufacture, road aggregate, and building stone.
Ichnology,classification & significance of trace fossilUjjavalPatel16
Ichnology,classification& significance of trace fossil
Most trace fossils are largely facies dependant.
No secondary displacement or transport.
Trace fossils are common in rocks that otherwise are unfossiliferous. (siliciclastics, shorelines)
Non-preservation of the causative organism.
Multiple architects may produce a single structure.
The same individual can produce different structures corresponding to different behavior.
The same individual may produce different structures corresponding with identical behavior but in different substrates.
Identical structures may be produced by the activity of systematically different organisms where behavior is similar.
Abundance - one animal, especially if mobile, can make many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not have its body preserved in the fossil record.
A sedimentary facies is a body of rock or sediment that is characterized by particular attributes that distinguish it from adjacent rock bodies. These attributes include lithology, color, texture, sedimentary structures, mineral/fossil content, and bed geometry. Together these attributes provide clues about the depositional environment. Different facies reflect different environments, such as beach/shallow marine facies indicating sandstone and offshore marine facies indicating shale. Facies analysis studies these attributes to interpret depositional environments and geological history at various scales.
This document discusses the Dharwar Super Group found in the Dharwar Craton of India. The Dharwar Craton is divided into the Western and Eastern Dharwar cratons, separated by the Chitradurga shear zone. The Western Dharwar craton contains two prominent super belts: the Bababudan-Western Ghats-Shimoga super belt and the Chitradurga-Gadag super belt, which are part of the Dharwar super group. The Eastern Dharwar craton also contains formations from the Dharwar super group, divided into the Kolar and Yashwantanagar formations. The document concludes that the Dharwar super
The document discusses the lowstand systems tract (LST), defining it as deposits that accumulate after the onset of relative sea-level rise during a period of early rise and normal regression. The LST includes fluvial, coastal, shallow marine, and deep marine deposits characterized by progradation or retrogradation. Key points covered include the depositional processes and products of each environment within the LST, as well as the economic potential of LST deposits for reservoirs and placer deposits.
1) Sequence stratigraphic surfaces are defined relative to curves describing base-level changes and shoreline shifts. These surfaces include subaerial unconformities, correlative conformities, the basal surface of forced regression, and transgressive ravinement surfaces.
2) Maximum regressive surfaces mark the change from shoreline regression to transgression, while maximum flooding surfaces separate retrograding strata below from prograding strata above.
3) Subaerial unconformities form during base-level fall and correlate to the largest stratigraphic hiatuses. Correlative conformities form at the end of base-level fall, separating forced regressive deposits from lowstand deposits.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
Stratigraphy of Layered mafic Intrusions in the The Stillwater complexSharik Shamsudhien
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and characteristics of the Stillwater Complex, a layered mafic intrusion in Montana. It describes the different rock series that make up the Complex from bottom to top, including a Basal Series containing ores, an Ultramafic Series with peridotite and orthopyroxenite zones exhibiting rhythmic layering, and a Banded Series containing norites and gabbros. It notes the Complex was uplifted and eroded, exposing its steeply dipping layers. The document also provides general characteristics of layered intrusions, such as their perpendicular layering that can be cryptic or rhythmic and extend over large areas.
This document discusses ore deposits and the fluids involved in their formation. It covers five main types of ore-bearing fluids: 1) magmas and magmatic fluids, 2) meteoric waters, 3) connate waters, 4) fluids associated with metamorphic processes. It then discusses the migration of ore-bearing fluids through rocks, noting that permeability and porosity allow fluids to circulate over long periods of time. Metals can also migrate in the colloidal state within fluids. The document provides an overview of the key fluids and processes involved in forming various ore deposit types.
Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. It is classified based on several properties including genesis, texture, color, and chemical composition. Based on genesis, igneous rocks are classified as plutonic (cooled at depth), hypabyssal (cooled at shallow depth), or volcanic (cooled on the surface). Texture classifications include phaneritic, aphenitic, porphyritic, and poikilitic. Color classifications are based on the percentage of mafic minerals and include leucocratic, mesocratic, melanocratic, and hypermelanic. Chemical composition classifications include peraluminous, metaaluminous, subaluminous, and several
Shear zones are zones of highly strained rock that form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. They record a history of deformation and can indicate the sense and amount of displacement. There are several types of shear zones defined by the dominant deformation mechanism (brittle, ductile, semibrittle, brittle-ductile). Determining the sense of shear is important and can be achieved through studying offset markers, foliation patterns, shear bands, inclusion shapes, and other indicators exposed in the shear zone.
Sequence stratigraphy and its applicationsPramoda Raj
Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock strata in terms of depositional sequences that are genetically related and bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. It was pioneered by James Hutton in 1788 and further developed by researchers like Sloss and Vail to understand global eustatic sea level changes and their control on sediment deposition. Key concepts include systems tracts like transgressive, highstand, and parasequences which are building blocks of sequences. Sequence stratigraphy is useful for basin analysis, hydrocarbon exploration, and understanding past sea level fluctuations. Case studies have applied it to outcrops and subsurface sediments.
This document defines sequence stratigraphy and discusses its basic concepts. Sequence stratigraphy studies genetically related rock units bounded by unconformities. It is based on dividing strata into sequences bounded by sea level changes. Key concepts discussed include depositional sequences, parasequences, flooding surfaces, system tracts, accommodation space, and the importance of sequence stratigraphy for understanding basin evolution and resource exploration.
This document discusses phase diagrams and their classification. It begins by defining key terms like phases, components, solutions, and mixtures. It then explains Gibbs phase rule and how it relates the number of phases (P) to components (C) and degrees of freedom (F). Equilibrium phase diagrams are introduced as diagrams that depict phase existence under equilibrium conditions as a function of temperature and composition. Different types of phase diagrams are classified, including unary, binary, and ternary systems. Specific binary systems like eutectic and isomorphous systems are discussed in more detail. Important concepts like invariant reactions, intermediate phases, lever rule, and cooling curves are also summarized. The Fe-C binary phase diagram is provided as a detailed
This document provides an overview of phase diagrams and microstructure development in multicomponent materials systems. It defines key terms like component, phase, solubility limit, and microstructure. It also explains concepts such as equilibrium, metastable states, and lever rule for determining phase compositions and amounts. Different types of binary phase diagrams are discussed, including eutectic and isomorphous systems. The development of microstructure during equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling of alloys is described for both eutectic and isomorphous systems.
This document provides an introduction to alloy phase diagrams. It discusses how alloy phase diagrams are useful for metallurgists in developing new alloys, processing alloys, and solving performance issues. The document then defines key terms related to alloy phase diagrams including phases, equilibrium, polymorphism, metastable phases, systems, phase diagrams, and the phase rule. It provides examples of unary, binary, and ternary phase diagrams. Specifically, it discusses invariant equilibrium, univariant equilibrium, and bivariant equilibrium for unary systems. It also discusses miscibility in solid and liquid states, liquidus and solidus lines, eutectic reactions, and three-phase equilibrium for binary systems.
The document defines key terms related to phase diagrams:
1) Components are the chemically distinct parts of a system (like Fe and C in steel), phases are uniform regions that can contain one or more components.
2) Solubility limits define how much of one component can dissolve in another phase.
3) Microstructure describes the number/arrangement of phases in a material and influences its properties.
4) Equilibrium is the thermodynamically stable state achieved over long times, while metastable states can appear stable over shorter times before reaching equilibrium.
5) Phase diagrams graphically map the equilibrium phases that exist at different temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
The document discusses phase rule and its application in one and two component systems. Some key points:
1. Phase rule relates the number of degrees of freedom (F) in a system to the number of components (C) and phases (P) using the equation F = C - P + 2.
2. In a one component system like water, the phase diagram plots pressure and temperature and shows regions where ice, water and vapor can exist.
3. A two component system can form simple eutectic mixtures, compounds with congruent/incongruent melting points, or solid solutions. The reduced phase rule for constant pressure is F = C - P + 1.
This document provides information about phase diagrams:
[1] Phase diagrams graphically show the phases present in a material system at different temperatures and compositions. They can indicate properties like the number, type, and amount of phases.
[2] There are several common types of phase diagrams including complete solid solution, eutectic, and peritectic diagrams. Cooling curves are also used to experimentally determine phase boundaries.
[3] The phase rule relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. Lever rule calculations use tie lines on phase diagrams to determine the composition and relative amounts of coexisting phases.
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T Unit V HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSESTHANMAY JS
The document discusses heat treatment processes and phase diagrams. It covers concepts like phase, Gibbs phase rule, equilibrium phase diagrams for pure metals and alloys, the iron-carbon phase diagram showing various phases, critical temperatures, and reactions on the iron-carbon diagram. It also defines heat treatment as a process to change properties without changing composition, and lists purposes like improving machinability, magnetic/electrical properties, and resistance to wear, heat and corrosion. Key heat treatment processes discussed include annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering, nitriding, cyaniding, carburizing, and case hardening.
The document provides information on phase diagrams, including definitions of key concepts like phases, phase equilibria, and binary phase diagrams. It discusses one-component and binary systems, focusing on isomorphous, eutectic, and iron-carbon systems. For binary systems, it explains how to interpret phase diagrams to determine the phases present, phase compositions, and phase amounts using rules like lever rule. It summarizes common reactions like eutectic, eutectoid, and peritectic and analyzes the iron-carbon phase diagram in detail.
1. The document discusses phase diagrams and thermodynamics of mixing.
2. It explains how phase diagrams can be used to determine the number and types of phases present, the composition of each phase, and the amount of each phase at a given temperature and composition.
3. Binary eutectic and eutectoid systems allow for a range of microstructures depending on the cooling rate, and alloying generally increases strength but decreases ductility due to solid solution strengthening.
- The Gibbs Phase Rule is a fundamental concept in chemistry and thermodynamics that helps predict the number of phases present in a system at equilibrium and the degrees of freedom based on the number of components and phases.
- For a one-component system, the Phase Rule states that the maximum number of degrees of freedom is two, allowing variation of temperature and pressure. With additional phases, the degrees of freedom are reduced.
- The Phase Rule has significant applications in fields like materials science, chemical engineering, and geology for understanding phase behavior and transitions under various conditions.
The document outlines a lecture on phase diagrams, including:
1) Definitions of key terms like phase, solubility limit, and phase diagrams.
2) Descriptions of different types of phase diagrams including binary isomorphous and eutectic systems.
3) Details on the important iron-carbon phase diagram, including the various phases like ferrite, cementite, and pearlite and how microstructure changes with carbon content and heat treatment.
This document provides an overview of the ME6403 - Engineering Materials and Metallurgy course. The objective is to impart knowledge about structure, properties, treatment and applications of metals and non-metals. Upon completion, students will be able to select suitable materials for engineering applications. The first unit covers alloys and phase diagrams, including solid solutions, phase reactions and the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. Microstructure, properties and applications of steels and cast irons are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of the ME6403 - Engineering Materials and Metallurgy course. The objective is to impart knowledge about structure, properties, treatment and applications of metals and non-metals. Upon completion, students will be able to select suitable materials for engineering applications. The first unit covers alloys and phase diagrams, including solid solutions, phase reactions and the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. Microstructure, properties and applications of steels and cast irons are also discussed.
This document discusses thermodynamic equilibrium, states, and phases. It defines thermodynamic equilibrium as a state where a system achieves thermal, chemical, and mechanical balance, with nothing changing at the macroscale. Thermal equilibrium occurs when two objects have the same temperature, and chemical equilibrium is a state where reactants and products are present at constant concentrations. A system's state is defined by variables like temperature, pressure, and volume, and a phase is a physically distinct, chemically homogeneous portion of a system. The phase rule relates the number of degrees of freedom in a system to the number of components and phases present.
This document provides an overview of phase diagrams and their components. It discusses that a phase diagram shows the phases that are present at equilibrium under different temperature and composition conditions. It outlines the key components of phase diagrams, including phase boundaries, triple points, solidus and liquidus lines. It also describes the different types of phase diagrams - unary, binary, and ternary - as well as common binary phase diagrams like eutectic, peritectic, and solid solution types. The document emphasizes that phase diagrams are important for understanding phase transformations and determining properties of materials at different temperatures and compositions.
The document discusses phase diagrams and microstructure of materials. It defines key terms like components, phases, and microstructure. It explains that phase diagrams show the stable phases in a material system under different temperature, pressure and composition conditions. The document discusses different types of binary phase diagrams and how to read them. It also discusses how phase diagrams can be constructed and experimentally determined. Phase diagrams are important tools for materials scientists to understand and control material properties by manipulating phase transformations.
The document provides information about phase diagrams and the different types of phases that can exist in alloy systems. It discusses the following key points:
- Phase diagrams show the phases in equilibrium for a given alloy composition at different temperatures. They indicate solidification processes and phase changes with heat treatment.
- Solid solutions are homogeneous solid mixtures where one element dissolves uniformly in the crystal lattice of another. They can be substitutional or interstitial.
- Intermediate phases form in alloy systems with high chemical affinity between elements. They range from ideal solid solutions to ideal chemical compounds.
- The phase rule establishes the relationship between phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. It can be used to
Lab 2 - The Phase Rule , binary phase -new.pptMihirMandal7
1. The Phase Rule relates the number of degrees of freedom (F) in a system to the number of components (C), phases (P), and intensive variables like pressure and temperature. F = C - P + 2.
2. A phase diagram graphs the stability ranges of phases as a function of intensive variables like pressure and temperature. It can show phase boundaries and invariant points.
3. Systems with a single component have limited degrees of freedom depending on the number of phases present. At an invariant point with 3 phases, there are no degrees of freedom.
4. Binary systems can have complete solid solutions, eutectic systems, or intermediate solid solutions depending on the components. Phase relationships are
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. Chapter 24. Stable Mineral
Assemblages in Metamorphic Rocks
• Equilibrium Mineral Assemblages
• At equilibrium, the mineralogy (and the composition of
each mineral) is determined by T, P, and X
• “Mineral paragenesis” refers to such an equilibrium
mineral assemblage
• Relict minerals or later alteration products are excluded
unless specifically stated
2. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
Phase rule, as applied to systems at equilibrium:
F = C - f + 2 the phase rule (Eq 6.1)
f = the number of phases in the system
C = the number of components: the minimum
number of chemical constituents required to
specify every phase in the system
F = the number of degrees of freedom: the
number of independently variable intensive
parameters of state (such as temperature,
pressure, the composition of each phase, etc.)
3. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
If F 2 is the most common situation, then the
phase rule may be adjusted accordingly:
F = C - f + 2 2
f C (Eq 24.1)
Goldschmidt’s mineralogical phase rule, or simply
the mineralogical phase rule
4. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
Suppose we have determined C for a rock
Consider the following three scenarios:
a) f = C
The standard divariant situation
The rock probably represents an equilibrium
mineral assemblage from within a
metamorphic zone
5. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
b) f < C
Common with mineral systems that exhibit solid
solution
Plagioclase
Liquid
Liquid
plus
Plagioclase
6. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
c) f > C
A more interesting situation, and at least one of
three situations must be responsible:
1) F < 2
The sample is collected from a location right on
a univariant reaction curve (isograd) or
invariant point
7. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
Consider the following three scenarios:
C = 1
f = 1 common
f = 2 rare
f = 3 only at the specific
P-T conditions of the
invariant point
(~ 0.37 GPa and
500oC)
Figure 21.9. The P-T phase diagram for the system Al2SiO5
calculated using the program TWQ (Berman, 1988, 1990, 1991).
Winter (2010) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
8. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
2) Equilibrium has not been attained
The phase rule applies only to systems at equilibrium,
and there could be any number of minerals
coexisting if equilibrium is not attained
9. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
3) We didn’t choose the # of components correctly
Some guidelines for an appropriate choice of C
• Begin with a 1-component system, such as CaAl2Si2O8
(anorthite), there are 3 common types of major/minor components
that we can add
a) Components that generate a new phase
Adding a component such as CaMgSi2O6 (diopside), results
in an additional phase: in the binary Di-An system diopside
coexists with anorthite below the solidus
10. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
3) We didn’t choose the # of components correctly
b) Components that substitute for other components
• Adding a component such as NaAlSi3O8 (albite) to the 1-C
anorthite system would dissolve in the anorthite structure,
resulting in a single solid-solution mineral (plagioclase)
below the solidus
• Fe and Mn commonly substitute for Mg
• Al may substitute for Si
• Na may substitute for K
11. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
3) We didn’t choose the # of components correctly
c) “Perfectly mobile” components
• Mobile components are either a freely mobile fluid
component or a component that dissolves readily in a fluid
phase and can be transported easily
• The chemical activity of such components is commonly
controlled by factors external to the local rock system
• They are commonly ignored in deriving C for metamorphic
systems
12. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
Consider the very simple metamorphic system, MgO-H2O
• Possible natural phases in this system are periclase
(MgO), aqueous fluid (H2O), and brucite (Mg(OH)2)
• How we deal with H2O depends upon whether water is
perfectly mobile or not
• A reaction can occur between the potential phases in this
system:
MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2 Per + Fluid = Bru
13. Figure 24.1. P-T diagram for the reaction brucite = periclase +
water. From Winter (2010). An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
14. Figure 24.1. P-T diagram for the reaction brucite = periclase +
water. From Winter (2010). An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
15. Figure 24.1. P-T diagram for the reaction brucite = periclase +
water. From Winter (2010). An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
16. The Phase Rule in Metamorphic Systems
How do you know which way is correct?
The rocks should tell you
• Phase rule = interpretive tool, not predictive
• If only see low-f assemblages (e.g. Per or Bru in the
MgO-H2O system) some components may be mobile
• If many phases in an area it is unlikely that all is right on
univariant curve, and may require the number of
components to include otherwise mobile phases, such as
H2O or CO2, in order to apply the phase rule correctly
17. Chemographic Diagrams
Chemographics refers to the graphical representation
of the chemistry of mineral assemblages
A simple example: the plagioclase system as a linear
C = 2 plot:
= 100 An/(An+Ab)
18. Chemographic Diagrams
3-C mineral compositions are plotted on a triangular
chemographic diagram as shown in Fig. 24.2
x, y, z, xz, xyz, and yz2
19. Suppose that the rocks in our
area have the following 5
assemblages:
x - xy - x2z
xy - xyz - x2z
xy - xyz - y
xyz - z - x2z
y - z - xyz
Figure 24.2. Hypothetical three-component
chemographic compatibility diagram
illustrating the positions of various stable
minerals. Minerals that coexist compatibly
under the range of P-T conditions specific to
the diagram are connected by tie-lines. After
Best (1982) Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. W. H. Freeman.
20. Note that this subdivides the chemographic diagram into 5
sub-triangles, labeled (A)-(E)
x - xy - x2z
xy - xyz - x2z
xy - xyz - y
xyz - z - x2z
y - z - xyz
21. Common point corresponds to 3 phases, thus f = C
Figure 24.2. Hypothetical three-component
chemographic compatibility diagram
illustrating the positions of various stable
minerals. Minerals that coexist compatibly
under the range of P-T conditions specific to
the diagram are connected by tie-lines. After
Best (1982) Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. W. H. Freeman.
22. What happens if you pick a composition that falls directly on
a tie-line, such as point (f)?
Figure 24.2. Hypothetical three-component
chemographic compatibility diagram
illustrating the positions of various stable
minerals. Minerals that coexist compatibly
under the range of P-T conditions specific to
the diagram are connected by tie-lines. After
Best (1982) Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. W. H. Freeman.
23. In the unlikely event that the bulk
composition equals that of a single
mineral, such as xyz, then f = 1, but
C = 1 as well
“compositionally
degenerate”
24. Chemographic Diagrams
Valid compatibility diagram must be referenced to a
specific range of P-T conditions, such as a zone in
some metamorphic terrane, because the stability of
the minerals and their groupings vary as P and T vary
• Previous diagram refers to a P-T range in which
the fictitious minerals x, y, z, xy, xyz, and x2z are
all stable and occur in the groups shown
• At different grades the diagrams change
Other minerals become stable
Different arrangements of the same minerals (different
tie-lines connect different coexisting phases)
25. A diagram in which some minerals exhibit solid solution
Figure 24.3. Hypothetical
three-component
chemographic compatibility
diagram illustrating the
positions of various stable
minerals, many of which
exhibit solid solution. After
Best (1982) Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. W. H.
Freeman.
26. Figure 24.3. Hypothetical
three-component
chemographic compatibility
diagram illustrating the
positions of various stable
minerals, many of which
exhibit solid solution. After
Best (1982) Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. W. H.
Freeman.
If Xbulk on a tie-line
27. Xbulk in 3-phase triangles F = 2 (P & T) so Xmin fixed
Figure 24.3. Hypothetical
three-component
chemographic compatibility
diagram illustrating the
positions of various stable
minerals, many of which
exhibit solid solution. After
Best (1982) Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. W. H.
Freeman.
28. Chemographic Diagrams for
Metamorphic Rocks
• Most common natural rocks contain the major
elements: SiO2, Al2O3, K2O, CaO, Na2O, FeO,
MgO, MnO and H2O such that C = 9
• Three components is the maximum number that
we can easily deal with in two dimensions
• What is the “right” choice of components?
• Some simplifying methods:
29. 1) Simply “ignore” components
• Trace elements
• Elements that enter only a single phase
(we can drop both the component and the
phase without violating the phase rule)
• Perfectly mobile components
30. 2) Combine components
Components that substitute for one
another in a solid solution: (Fe + Mg)
3) Limit the types of rocks to be shown
Only deal with a sub-set of rock types for
which a simplified system works
4) Use projections
I’ll explain this shortly
31. The phase rule and compatibility diagrams are rigorously
correct when applied to complete systems
• A triangular diagram thus applies rigorously only to true
(but rare) 3-component systems
• If drop components and phases, combine components, or
project from phases, we face the same dilemma we faced
using simplified systems in Chapters 6 and 7
Gain by being able to graphically display the simplified
system, and many aspects of the system’s behavior
become apparent
Lose a rigorous correlation between the behavior of the
simplified system and reality
32. The ACF Diagram
• Illustrate metamorphic mineral assemblages in mafic rocks
on a simplified 3-C triangular diagram
• Concentrate only on the minerals that appeared or
disappeared during metamorphism, thus acting as
indicators of metamorphic grade
33. Figure 24.4. After Ehlers and Blatt (1982).
Petrology. Freeman. And Miyashiro (1994)
Metamorphic Petrology. Oxford.
34. The ACF Diagram
The three pseudo-components are all calculated
on an atomic basis:
A = Al2O3 + Fe2O3 - Na2O - K2O
C = CaO - 3.3 P2O5
F = FeO + MgO + MnO
35. The ACF Diagram
A = Al2O3 + Fe2O3 - Na2O - K2O
Why the subtraction?
• Na and K in the average mafic rock are typically
combined with Al to produce Kfs and Albite
• In the ACF diagram, we are interested only in the other K-
bearing metamorphic minerals, and thus only in the
amount of Al2O3 that occurs in excess of that combined
with Na2O and K2O (in albite and K-feldspar)
• Because the ratio of Al2O3 to Na2O or K2O in feldspars is
1:1, we subtract from Al2O3 an amount equivalent to Na2O
and K2O in the same 1:1 ratio
37. The ACF Diagram
• Water is omitted under the assumption that it is perfectly
mobile
• Note that SiO2 is simply ignored
We shall see that this is equivalent to projecting from quartz
• In order for a projected phase diagram to be truly valid,
the phase from which it is projected must be present in the
mineral assemblages represented
By creating these three pseudo-components, Eskola reduced
the number of components in mafic rocks from 8 to 3
38. The ACF Diagram
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
A = 1 + 0 - 0 - 0 = 1, C = 1 - 0 = 1, and F = 0
Provisional values sum to 2, so we can normalize to
1.0 by multiplying each value by ½, resulting in
A = 0.5
C = 0.5
F = 0
An example:
Where does Ab plot? Plagioclase?
39. Figure 24.4. After Ehlers and Blatt (1982).
Petrology. Freeman. And Miyashiro (1994)
Metamorphic Petrology. Oxford.
40. A typical ACF compatibility diagram, referring to a specific
range of P and T (the kyanite zone in the Scottish Highlands)
Figure 24.5. After
Turner (1981).
Metamorphic Petrology.
McGraw Hill.
41. The AKF Diagram
• In the AKF diagram, the pseudo-components
are:
A = Al2O3 + Fe2O3 - Na2O - K2O - CaO
K = K2O
F = FeO + MgO + MnO
Because pelitic sediments are high in Al2O3 and K2O,
and low in CaO, Eskola proposed a different diagram
that included K2O to depict the mineral assemblages
that develop in them
43. AKF compatibility diagram (Eskola, 1915) illustrating
paragenesis of pelitic hornfelses, Orijärvi region Finland
Figure 24.7. After
Eskola (1915) and
Turner (1981)
Metamorphic Petrology.
McGraw Hill.
44. Three of the most common minerals in metapelites:
andalusite, muscovite, and microcline, all plot as distinct
points in the AKF diagram
• And & Ms plot as the
same point in the ACF
diagram, and Micr
doesn’t plot at all, so
the ACF diagram is
much less useful for
pelitic rocks (rich in K
and Al)
45. Projections in Chemographic Diagrams
• Why we ignored SiO2 in the ACF and AKF
diagrams
• What that subtraction was all about in calculating
A and C
• It will also help you to better understand the AFM
diagram and some of the shortcomings of projected
metamorphic phase diagrams
When we explore the methods of chemographic
projection we will discover:
46. Projection from Apical Phases
Straightforward: C = CaO, M = MgO, and S = SiO2… none
of that fancy subtracting business!
• Let’s plot the following minerals:
Fo - Mg2SiO4 Per - MgO
En - MgSiO3 Qtz - SiO2
Di - CaMgSi2O6 Cc - CaCO3
Example- the ternary system: CaO-MgO-SiO2 (“CMS”)
47. Projection from Apical Phases
Fo - Mg2SiO4 Per - MgO En - MgSiO3
Qtz - SiO2 Di - CaMgSi2O6 Cc - CaCO3
48. The line intersects
the M-S the side at a
point equivalent to
33% MgO
67% SiO2
Note that any point on
the dashed line from C
through Di to the M-S
side has a constant
ratio of Mg:Si = 1:2
Figure 24.8. Winter (2010)
An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
49. Projection from Apical Phases
Pseudo-binary Mg-Si diagram in which Di is
projected to a 33% Mg - 66% Si
MgO SiO2
Fo En Di' Q
Per
+ Cal
Fo - Mg2SiO4 Per - MgO En - MgSiO3
Qtz - SiO2 Di - CaMgSi2O6 Cc - CaCO3
50. Projection from Apical Phases
• Could project Di
from SiO2 and get
C = 0.5, M = 0.5
MgO CaO
Di' Cal
Per, Fo, En
+ Qtz
51. Projection from Apical Phases
• In accordance with the mineralogical phase rule
(f = C) get any of the following 2-phase mineral
assemblages in our 2-component system:
Per + Fo Fo + En
En + Di Di + Q
MgO SiO2
Fo En Di' Q
Per
52. Projection from Apical Phases
What’s wrong?
MgO SiO2
Fo En Di' Q
Per
Figure 24.11. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
Projected from
Calcite
+ Cal
53. Projection from Apical Phases
What’s wrong?
MgO SiO2
Fo En
+ Di
Q
Per
Figure 24.11. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
Better to have
projected from
Diopside
54. Projection from Apical Phases
• ACF and AKF diagrams eliminate SiO2 by projecting
from quartz
• Math is easy: projecting from an apex component is like
ignoring the component in formulas
• The shortcoming is that these projections compress the
true relationships as a dimension is lost
55. Projection from Apical Phases
Two compounds plot within the ABCQ compositional tetrahedron,
x (formula ABCQ)
y (formula A2B2CQ)
Figure 24.12. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
56. Projection from Apical Phases
Figure 24.12. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
x = ABCQ
y = A2B2CQ
57. Figure 24.12. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
Projection from Apical Phases
x = ABCQ
y = A2B2CQ
58. Projection from Apical Phases
x plots as x' since A:B:C = 1:1:1 = 33:33:33
y plots as y' since A:B:C = 2:2:1 = 40:40:20
Figure 24.13. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
x = ABCQ
y = A2B2CQ
59. Projection from Apical Phases
If we remember our projection
point (q), we conclude from this
diagram that the following
assemblages are possible:
(q)-b-x-c
(q)-a-x-y
(q)-b-x-y
(q)-a-b-y
(q)-a-x-c
The assemblage a-b-c
appears to be impossible
60. Projection from Apical Phases
Figure 24.12. Winter
(2010) An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
62. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
An alternative to the AKF diagram for metamorphosed
pelitic rocks
Although the AKF is useful in this capacity, J.B.
Thompson (1957) noted that Fe and Mg do not
partition themselves equally between the various
mafic minerals in most rocks
63. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
Figure 24.17. Partitioning of
Mg/Fe in minerals in ultramafic
rocks, Bergell aureole, Italy
After Trommsdorff and Evans
(1972). A J Sci 272, 423-437.
65. J.B. Thompson’s
A(K)FM
Diagram
Project from a phase that is
present in the mineral
assemblages to be studied
Figure 24.18. AKFM Projection
from Mu. After Thompson (1957).
Am. Min. 22, 842-858.
66. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
• At high grades muscovite
dehydrates to K-feldspar as the
common high-K phase
• Then the AFM diagram should
be projected from K-feldspar
• When projected from Kfs,
biotite projects within the F-M
base of the AFM triangle
Figure 24.18. AKFM Projection
from Kfs. After Thompson (1957).
Am. Min. 22, 842-858.
67. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
A = Al2O3 - 3K2O (if projected from Ms)
= Al2O3 - K2O (if projected from Kfs)
F = FeO
M = MgO
68. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
Biotite (from Ms):
KMg2FeSi3AlO10(OH)2
A = 0.5 - 3 (0.5) = - 1
F = 1
M = 2
To normalize we multiply
each by 1.0/(2 + 1 - 1) =
1.0/2 = 0.5
Thus A = -0.5
F = 0.5
M = 1
69. J.B. Thompson’s A(K)FM Diagram
Figure 24.20. AFM Projection from
Ms for mineral assemblages
developed in metapelitic rocks in
the lower sillimanite zone, New
Hampshire After Thompson (1957).
Am. Min. 22, 842-858.
Mg-enrichment
typically in the
order: cordierite >
chlorite > biotite >
staurolite > garnet
70. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
• Example, suppose we have a series of pelitic rocks in
an area. The pelitic system consists of the 9 principal
components: SiO2, Al2O3, FeO, MgO, MnO, CaO,
Na2O, K2O, and H2O
• How do we lump those 9 components to get a
meaningful and useful diagram?
71. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
Each simplifying step makes the resulting system easier to
visualize, but may overlook some aspect of the rocks in
question
• MnO is commonly lumped with FeO + MgO, or
ignored, as it usually occurs in low concentrations and
enters solid solutions along with FeO and MgO
• In metapelites Na2O is usually significant only in
plagioclase, so we may often ignore it, or project from
albite
• As a rule, H2O is sufficiently mobile to be ignored as
well
72. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
Common high-grade mineral assemblage:
Sil-St-Mu-Bt-Qtz-Plag
Figure 24.20. AFM Projection from
Ms for mineral assemblages
developed in metapelitic rocks in
the lower sillimanite zone, New
Hampshire After Thompson (1957).
Am. Min. 22, 842-858.
74. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
We don’t have equilibrium
There is a reaction taking
place (F = 1)
We haven’t chosen our
components correctly and
we do not really have 3
components in terms of AKF
Figure 24.21. After Ehlers and
Blatt (1982). Petrology. Freeman.
Sil-St-Mu-Bt-Qtz-Plag
75. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
Figure 24.21. After Ehlers and
Blatt (1982). Petrology. Freeman.
Sil-St-Mu-Bt-Qtz-Plag
76. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
• Myriad chemographic diagrams have been proposed to
analyze paragenetic relationships in various
metamorphic rock types
• Most are triangular: the maximum number that can be
represented easily and accurately in two dimensions
• Some natural systems may conform to a simple 3-
component system, and the resulting metamorphic
phase diagram is rigorous in terms of the mineral
assemblages that develop
• Other diagrams are simplified by combining
components or projecting
77. Choosing the Appropriate Chemographic Diagram
• Variations in metamorphic mineral assemblages result
from:
1) Differences in bulk chemistry
2) differences in intensive variables, such as T, P, PH2O,
etc (metamorphic grade)
• A good chemographic diagram permits easy
visualization of the first situation
• The second can be determined by a balanced reaction in
which one rock’s mineral assemblage contains the
reactants and another the products
• These differences can often be visualized by comparing
separate chemographic diagrams, one for each grade