The document provides information on metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It begins with an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and location in the cytoplasm. Key details are provided on the regulation of three glycolytic enzymes: hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase. The document then discusses the fates of pyruvate, including its conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle or fermentation pathways. An overview of the citric acid cycle follows, along with its regulation and role in ATP production. The electron transport chain is then introduced, along with the structures and functions of its four complexes. In summary
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, focusing on glycolysis. It begins by outlining the major pathways of carbohydrate metabolism in animals, including glycolysis, glycogenesis/glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and links to fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. The main text then focuses on glycolysis, describing it as an ancient pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate with the production of a small amount of ATP. Glycolysis proceeds in two stages: glucose phosphorylation and cleavage, followed by conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to pyruvate with net ATP production. The fates of pyruvate depend on aerobic vs. anaerobic conditions in the organism.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the main pathways for glucose metabolism and energy production in cells. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be further oxidized, with electrons being transferred to oxygen through the electron transport chain. This generates a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to produce the majority of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Various pathways like gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen metabolism also interact with glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to regulate glucose and energy homeostasis in the body.
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen present. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate, while in aerobic conditions pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by feedback inhibition and is a key energy producing process, especially under low oxygen conditions like in muscle during exercise. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA produced from pyruvate to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and uronic acid pathway. For each pathway, it describes the key reactions, regulation, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical significance. The document is a comprehensive review of carbohydrate metabolism from a biochemical perspective.
Overview of metabolism & glycolysis lec 2 4mariagul6
This document discusses metabolism of carbohydrates, specifically glycolysis. It begins by defining metabolism and categorizing metabolic pathways as anabolic, catabolic, or amphibolic. It then describes the two phases of glycolysis - an energy investment phase and an energy generation phase. Key steps in glycolysis including phosphorylation, isomerization, and oxidation reactions are outlined. Regulation of glycolysis and glucose transport mechanisms into cells are also summarized. Aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis are compared, and the roles of NADH, pyruvate, and lactate in energy production are described.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The pathway involves a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately yield 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase to control the rate of glucose breakdown.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, focusing on glycolysis. It begins by outlining the major pathways of carbohydrate metabolism in animals, including glycolysis, glycogenesis/glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and links to fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. The main text then focuses on glycolysis, describing it as an ancient pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate with the production of a small amount of ATP. Glycolysis proceeds in two stages: glucose phosphorylation and cleavage, followed by conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to pyruvate with net ATP production. The fates of pyruvate depend on aerobic vs. anaerobic conditions in the organism.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the main pathways for glucose metabolism and energy production in cells. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be further oxidized, with electrons being transferred to oxygen through the electron transport chain. This generates a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to produce the majority of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Various pathways like gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen metabolism also interact with glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to regulate glucose and energy homeostasis in the body.
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen present. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate, while in aerobic conditions pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by feedback inhibition and is a key energy producing process, especially under low oxygen conditions like in muscle during exercise. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA produced from pyruvate to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and uronic acid pathway. For each pathway, it describes the key reactions, regulation, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical significance. The document is a comprehensive review of carbohydrate metabolism from a biochemical perspective.
Overview of metabolism & glycolysis lec 2 4mariagul6
This document discusses metabolism of carbohydrates, specifically glycolysis. It begins by defining metabolism and categorizing metabolic pathways as anabolic, catabolic, or amphibolic. It then describes the two phases of glycolysis - an energy investment phase and an energy generation phase. Key steps in glycolysis including phosphorylation, isomerization, and oxidation reactions are outlined. Regulation of glycolysis and glucose transport mechanisms into cells are also summarized. Aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis are compared, and the roles of NADH, pyruvate, and lactate in energy production are described.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The pathway involves a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately yield 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase to control the rate of glucose breakdown.
GLUCONEOGENESIS in animals for veterinarians.pdfTatendaMageja
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs primarily during periods of fasting or low blood glucose. The document outlines the major substrates used, including amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It also describes the three bypass reactions needed due to thermodynamic barriers: 1) conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate, 2) dephosphorylation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and 3) dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate. Hormonal and substrate-level regulation of the process is also discussed.
This document discusses glycolysis, the pathway that breaks down glucose to pyruvate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen. It is an important pathway for ATP generation. The document outlines the 10 steps of glycolysis, including an energy investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate glucose, and an energy generation phase where ATP is regenerated. Phosphofructokinase is identified as the rate-limiting step. The fate of pyruvate, the end product, depends on oxygen availability, leading to aerobic or anaerobic metabolism.
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes in 10 steps. There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH must be recycled to NAD+ either through aerobic respiration or by converting pyruvate to lactate anaerobically. Glycolysis is regulated at three irreversible steps catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Other hexoses can also enter this ubiquitous pathway.
Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions to generate ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase where glucose is phosphorylated and the payoff phase where energy is generated. Glycolysis is regulated by hormones and key enzymes. The fate of pyruvate includes conversion to lactate or acetyl-CoA to feed into the TCA cycle. Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway are important glucose production and antioxidant pathways respectively.
Metabolism of carbohydrates by pulkit vedic.pdfvigyanabhyuday
Metabolism is very essential for our life, it's main characteristic of living being. Carbohydrates are the main source of energy or give fast energy.
**
Content given in PPT is short and in easy way based on personal experience.
For more knowledge, books are prescribed.
Helps in,
Horticulture: food nutrition
Basic biology
Gk
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and related topics. It begins by listing important dietary carbohydrates such as starch, cellulose, sucrose, and lactose. It then explains that the end products of carbohydrate digestion are glucose, fructose, and galactose, with glucose being the central molecule in carbohydrate metabolism. The document goes on to discuss glucose transporters, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, the fate of pyruvate, and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It provides details on the reactions, regulation, and importance of these metabolic pathways.
This document summarizes key aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then focuses on glycolysis, describing the 10 step process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate while producing ATP. The document next examines the three fates of pyruvate - being oxidized to acetyl-CoA, undergoing lactic acid fermentation, or ethanol fermentation. It concludes by outlining the aerobic pathway where pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glucose metabolism and the pathways involved in glucose oxidation and storage. It covers the following key points:
1) Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the two major pathways for glucose oxidation and energy production. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and citric acid cycle in the mitochondria.
2) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of energy. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle or be converted to lactate.
3) The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl groups from pyruvate, producing more energy through the electron transport chain.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It covers topics like glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis and breakdown, the pentose phosphate pathway, and digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. For glycolysis, it describes the pathway, regulation in liver and muscle, energetics, and disorders. For gluconeogenesis, it outlines the pathway and significance of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol and amino acids. It also discusses glycogen synthesis and breakdown in liver and muscle, including regulation and storage diseases.
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The liver plays a key role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose levels. Glycolysis occurs through three phases: 1) energy investment where glucose is phosphorylated, 2) splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules, and 3) energy generation where ATP is produced from the breakdown of the three-carbon molecules. The pathway generates 2 ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions and up to 8 ATP per glucose under aerobic conditions using shuttle pathways to further oxidize NADH in the mitochondria.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major metabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, and others. For each pathway, it provides details on the reactions, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical aspects. It also discusses the role of hormones in carbohydrate metabolism and dental aspects. The document concludes with a summary and references section.
8. Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenosis glycogen synthesis and cori cycle (Biochemis...Jay Khaniya
This document summarizes several metabolic pathways related to glucose regulation:
1. Gluconeogenesis - The conversion of non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate and amino acids into glucose, which occurs primarily in the liver during fasting. Key steps involve converting pyruvate to oxaloacetate and oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate.
2. Glycogenolysis - The breakdown of glycogen polymers into glucose-1-phosphate during periods of high energy demand. This process is catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase.
3. Glycogen synthesis - The reverse process of glycogenolysis, involving glycogen synthase and UDP-glucose, to store glucose as glyc
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, classifying carbohydrates and their functions. It then outlines the major pathways of carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and the metabolism of galactose, fructose, and amino sugars. Clinical aspects related to deficiencies in these pathways are also mentioned.
1. Gluconeogenesis is the process by which the body produces glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates during periods of fasting or starvation. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney.
2. Three irreversible steps in glycolysis present thermodynamic barriers that must be bypassed through new reactions to allow the formation of glucose from substrates like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.
3. The Cori and glucose-alanine cycles help dispose of excess lactate produced in tissues like muscle and integrate anaerobic glycolysis with gluconeogenesis. The HMP shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
biochemistry of MSS prepared by Fikadu Seyoum Tola. This ppt essentially disc...fikaduseyoum1
biochemistry of MSS prepared by Fikadu Seyoum Tola. This ppt essentially discuss about collegen biosnthesis, defect and muscle energy metabolism with its regulations.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the digestion of carbohydrates, absorption of glucose, and disorders of carbohydrate digestion. It then summarizes glycolysis, including the two stages, key steps, fates of pyruvate, regeneration of NAD+, and regulation. Finally, it briefly mentions the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and provides a quick reminder of glycogen metabolism.
This document outlines the process of establishing a nutritional surveillance system. It discusses the purpose of nutritional surveillance, which is to monitor nutrition situations, identify malnutrition factors, and inform policies. The document describes the history of nutritional surveillance and challenges in establishing sustainable systems. It provides details on indicators, data collection methods, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of nutritional surveillance data.
The plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell and is selectively permeable. It regulates communication between the cell's interior and exterior environments. The cytoplasm contains the cytosol and various organelles. The cytosol is the intracellular fluid that contains dissolved nutrients, waste products, and cytoskeletal elements. It is the site of many cellular chemical reactions. The nucleus houses the cell's DNA within chromosomes and controls most cellular functions. Nutrients and waste diffuse across the membrane, while the cell maintains concentrations using membrane transport proteins and cellular energy.
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GLUCONEOGENESIS in animals for veterinarians.pdfTatendaMageja
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs primarily during periods of fasting or low blood glucose. The document outlines the major substrates used, including amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It also describes the three bypass reactions needed due to thermodynamic barriers: 1) conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate, 2) dephosphorylation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and 3) dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate. Hormonal and substrate-level regulation of the process is also discussed.
This document discusses glycolysis, the pathway that breaks down glucose to pyruvate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen. It is an important pathway for ATP generation. The document outlines the 10 steps of glycolysis, including an energy investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate glucose, and an energy generation phase where ATP is regenerated. Phosphofructokinase is identified as the rate-limiting step. The fate of pyruvate, the end product, depends on oxygen availability, leading to aerobic or anaerobic metabolism.
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes in 10 steps. There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH must be recycled to NAD+ either through aerobic respiration or by converting pyruvate to lactate anaerobically. Glycolysis is regulated at three irreversible steps catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Other hexoses can also enter this ubiquitous pathway.
Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions to generate ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase where glucose is phosphorylated and the payoff phase where energy is generated. Glycolysis is regulated by hormones and key enzymes. The fate of pyruvate includes conversion to lactate or acetyl-CoA to feed into the TCA cycle. Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway are important glucose production and antioxidant pathways respectively.
Metabolism of carbohydrates by pulkit vedic.pdfvigyanabhyuday
Metabolism is very essential for our life, it's main characteristic of living being. Carbohydrates are the main source of energy or give fast energy.
**
Content given in PPT is short and in easy way based on personal experience.
For more knowledge, books are prescribed.
Helps in,
Horticulture: food nutrition
Basic biology
Gk
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and related topics. It begins by listing important dietary carbohydrates such as starch, cellulose, sucrose, and lactose. It then explains that the end products of carbohydrate digestion are glucose, fructose, and galactose, with glucose being the central molecule in carbohydrate metabolism. The document goes on to discuss glucose transporters, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, the fate of pyruvate, and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It provides details on the reactions, regulation, and importance of these metabolic pathways.
This document summarizes key aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then focuses on glycolysis, describing the 10 step process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate while producing ATP. The document next examines the three fates of pyruvate - being oxidized to acetyl-CoA, undergoing lactic acid fermentation, or ethanol fermentation. It concludes by outlining the aerobic pathway where pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glucose metabolism and the pathways involved in glucose oxidation and storage. It covers the following key points:
1) Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the two major pathways for glucose oxidation and energy production. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and citric acid cycle in the mitochondria.
2) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of energy. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle or be converted to lactate.
3) The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl groups from pyruvate, producing more energy through the electron transport chain.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It covers topics like glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis and breakdown, the pentose phosphate pathway, and digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. For glycolysis, it describes the pathway, regulation in liver and muscle, energetics, and disorders. For gluconeogenesis, it outlines the pathway and significance of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol and amino acids. It also discusses glycogen synthesis and breakdown in liver and muscle, including regulation and storage diseases.
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The liver plays a key role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose levels. Glycolysis occurs through three phases: 1) energy investment where glucose is phosphorylated, 2) splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules, and 3) energy generation where ATP is produced from the breakdown of the three-carbon molecules. The pathway generates 2 ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions and up to 8 ATP per glucose under aerobic conditions using shuttle pathways to further oxidize NADH in the mitochondria.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major metabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, and others. For each pathway, it provides details on the reactions, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical aspects. It also discusses the role of hormones in carbohydrate metabolism and dental aspects. The document concludes with a summary and references section.
8. Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenosis glycogen synthesis and cori cycle (Biochemis...Jay Khaniya
This document summarizes several metabolic pathways related to glucose regulation:
1. Gluconeogenesis - The conversion of non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate and amino acids into glucose, which occurs primarily in the liver during fasting. Key steps involve converting pyruvate to oxaloacetate and oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate.
2. Glycogenolysis - The breakdown of glycogen polymers into glucose-1-phosphate during periods of high energy demand. This process is catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase.
3. Glycogen synthesis - The reverse process of glycogenolysis, involving glycogen synthase and UDP-glucose, to store glucose as glyc
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, classifying carbohydrates and their functions. It then outlines the major pathways of carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and the metabolism of galactose, fructose, and amino sugars. Clinical aspects related to deficiencies in these pathways are also mentioned.
1. Gluconeogenesis is the process by which the body produces glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates during periods of fasting or starvation. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney.
2. Three irreversible steps in glycolysis present thermodynamic barriers that must be bypassed through new reactions to allow the formation of glucose from substrates like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.
3. The Cori and glucose-alanine cycles help dispose of excess lactate produced in tissues like muscle and integrate anaerobic glycolysis with gluconeogenesis. The HMP shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
biochemistry of MSS prepared by Fikadu Seyoum Tola. This ppt essentially disc...fikaduseyoum1
biochemistry of MSS prepared by Fikadu Seyoum Tola. This ppt essentially discuss about collegen biosnthesis, defect and muscle energy metabolism with its regulations.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the digestion of carbohydrates, absorption of glucose, and disorders of carbohydrate digestion. It then summarizes glycolysis, including the two stages, key steps, fates of pyruvate, regeneration of NAD+, and regulation. Finally, it briefly mentions the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and provides a quick reminder of glycogen metabolism.
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This document outlines the process of establishing a nutritional surveillance system. It discusses the purpose of nutritional surveillance, which is to monitor nutrition situations, identify malnutrition factors, and inform policies. The document describes the history of nutritional surveillance and challenges in establishing sustainable systems. It provides details on indicators, data collection methods, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of nutritional surveillance data.
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Carbohydrate & lipid Metabolism_food Sci.pdf
1. ✓ Basic biomolecules (Lipids,
Carbohydrates, nucleic acid,
amino acids)
✓ Basic human physiology
(Metabolism of food,
transport systems etc.)
✓ Food nutritional values and
its importance
2. Syllabus
• Unit I: Enzymology
• Unit II: Molecular aspect of
transport
• Unit III: Metabolism of
carbohydrate
• Unit IV: Metabolism of
Protein
3. What is a metabolic
pathway?
• A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions
that takes a starting molecule and modifies it, step-by-
step, through a series of metabolic intermediates,
eventually yielding a final product.
• It is irreversible and committed to the first step.
• All metabolic pathways are regulated and occurs at
specific cellular location in eukaryotes.
4. Two types of metabolic
pathways
Anabolic pathways are those that
require energy to synthesize larger
molecules.
Catabolic pathways are those that
generate energy by breaking down
larger molecules.
5.
6.
7.
8. Glucose occupies central
position in metabolism
• The complete oxidation of glucose to carbon
dioxide and water proceeds with a standard free-
energy change of 2,840 kJ/mol.
• By storing glucose as a high molecular weight
polymer such as starch or glycogen, a cell can
stockpile large quantities of hexose units while
maintaining a relatively low cytosolic osmolarity.
When energy demands increase, glucose can be
released from these intracellular storage
polymers and used to produce ATP either
aerobically or anaerobically.
9. Glucose occupies central
position in metabolism
• Many tissues can also use fat
or protein as an energy
source but others, such as
the brain and red blood cells,
can only use glucose.
• Glucose is stored in the body
as glycogen. The liver is an
important storage site for
glycogen.
12. Glycolysis = E.M.
Pathway
History of Glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose in
yeast cells
Otto Warburg Hans von Euler-Chelpin
Gustav Embden Otto Meyerhof
Breakdown of glucose in
muscle cells
In 1930,
13. History of Glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose in
yeast cells
Otto Warburg Hans von Euler-Chelpin
Gustav Embden Otto Meyerhof
Breakdown of glucose in
muscle cells
In 1930,
Glycolysis = E.M. Pathway
14. Location: Cytoplasmic fraction
of cell
“Glycolysis is defined as the sequence of reactions converting glucose (or
glycogen) to pyruvate or lactate, with the production of ATP.”
It can occur in absence of oxygen (anerobic) and have the end-product Lactate
It can occur in presence of oxygen (aerobic) and have the end-product Pyruvate
Glycolysis is a major pathway for ATP synthesis in tissues lacking mitochondria, e.g.
erythrocytes, cornea, lens etc.
Glycolysis is very essential for brain which is dependent on glucose for energy. The
glucose in brain has to undergo glycolysis before it is oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
Glycolysis has two major phases: Preparatory phase and Payoff phase
18. Bisphosphate
➢ In a bisphosphate
compound, the two
phosphate moieties are
not attached to each
other, but rather are
bonded at different
places in the compound.
Diphosphate
➢ in a diphosphate
compound, the two
phosphate moieties are
attached to each other
24. Important chemical transformations
1. Degradation of the carbon skeleton of glucose
to yield pyruvate.
2. Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP by high-energy
phosphate compounds formed during
glycolysis
3. Transfer of a hydride ion to NAD⁺ forming
NADH.
25. ATP Formation Coupled to Glycolysis
Glucose + 2NAD + 2ADP + 2Pi 2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2H + 2ATP + 2H2O
ΔG°= -85kJ/mol
➢ Glycolysis is tightly regulated in coordination with other
energy-yielding pathways to assure a steady supply of
ATP.
➢ Hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase are all subject to
allosteric regulation that controls the flow of carbon
through the pathway and maintains constant levels of
metabolic intermediates.
39. Lactic acid formation ➢ Glycolysis in the erythrocytes leads to lactate
production, since mitochondria the centers for
aerobic oxidation—are absent. Brain, retina,
skin, renal medulla and gastrointestinal tract
derive most of their energy from glycolysis.
➢ Mild forms of lactic acidosis are associated with
strenuous exercise, shock, respiratory diseases,
cancers, etc.
➢ Severe forms of lactic acidosis are observed due
to impairment/collapse of circulatory system
which is often encountered in myocardial
infarction, pulmonary embolism, uncontrolled
hemorrhage and severe shock.
41. RAPAPORT-
LEUBERING CYCLE
➢ This is a supplementary pathway
to glycolysis is in the erythrocytes
of humans and other mammals.
➢ About 15-25% of the glucose
converts to lactate in erythrocytes
goes via 2,3-BPG synthesis.
Significance of 2,3-BPG
1. It is a shunt pathway of
glycolysis to dissipate or waste
the energy not needed by
erythrocytes.
2. It combines with Hb and
reduces its affinity with oxygen.
Therefore, in the presence of
2,3-BPG, oxyhemoglobin
unloads more oxygen to the
tissues.
➢ Increase in erythrocyte 2,3-BPG
is observed in hypoxic condition,
high altitude, anemic condition
and fetal tissues.
46. Location: mitochondrial matrix
Citric acid cycle
Also called Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or Krebs cycle.
About 65-70% of the ATP is synthesized in Krebs cycle.
Citric acid cycle essentially involves the oxidation of acetyl CoA to
CO2 and H2O.
This cycle utilizes about two thirds of total oxygen consumed by
the body.
It is a central metabolic pathway that connects almost all
metabolic pathway.
49. Offering
Acetyl to
Citrate
Cister
Is
O
K !!! you
Sico
Silly
Funny
Man
Oxaloacetate
Acetyl CoA
Citrate
Cis-Aconitate
Isocitrate
Oxalo-succinate
α-Ketoglutarate
Succinyl CoA
Succinate
Fumarate
Malate
50. Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O
2CO2 + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + GTP + CoA
52. Role of vitamins in
TCA cycle
Thiamine (vitamin B1) as a coenzyme (TPP) for α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) as a coenzyme (FAD) for succinate dehydrogenase.
Niacin (vitamin B3) as NAD works as electron acceptor for isocitrate
dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase.
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) as coenzyme A attached to active carboxylic
acid residues i.e. acetyl CoA, succinyl CoA.
55. Regulation of TCA
1. Citrate synthase:
Inhibited by ATP, NADH, Acetyl CoA and Succinyl CoA
Activated by ADP
2. Isocitrate dehydrogenase:
Inhibited by ATP and NADH
Activated by ADP
3. α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase:
Inhibited by NADH and Succinyl CoA
Activated by ADP
➢ Availability of ADP is very important for the citric acid cycle to proceed. This is due to the
fact that unless sufficient levels of ADP are available, oxidation (coupled with
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP) of NADH and FADH2 through electron transport chain stops.
61. ▪ Called as NADH dehydrogenase
complex or NADH:ubiquinone oxido-
reductase.
▪ Contains flavin mononucleotides
(FMN) and six iron sulphate (Fe-S)
complexes.
Complex I
Complex II • Called as succinate
dehydrogenase complex.
• The only membrane
bound protein of TCA
cycle.
Complex III • Called as Cytochrome
reductase or Q-cytochrome C
oxidoreductase.
• It is having cytochrome C1 and
cytochrome B.
Complex IV
• Celled as Cytochrome
C Oxidase.
• It has heme and
copper units.
Coenzyme-Q
Cytochrome
C
ATP synthase
97. ATP
calculation
Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH (3 via ATP G3P shuttle or 5
ATP via Malate-Aspartate shuttle)
4 H⁺ ion = 1 ATP
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
2 NADH (5 ATP)
TCA
2 GTP (2 ATP)
6 NADH (15 ATP)
2 FADH2 (3 ATP)
100. Gluconeogenesis
▪ Mostly takes place in cytosol of liver cells (1 gm glucose
is synthesized everyday)
Importance of gluconeogenesis
• Brain and central nervous system, erythrocytes, testes
and kidney medulla are dependent on glucose for
continuous supply of energy.
• Glucose is the only source that supplies energy to the
skeletal muscle, under anaerobic conditions.
• In fasting even more than a day, gluconeogenesis must
occur to meet the basal requirements of the body for
glucose and to maintain the intermediates of citric acid
cycle.
• Certain metabolites produced in the tissue accumulate in
the blood, e.g. lactate, glycerol, propionate etc.
Gluconeogenesis effectively clears them from the blood.
102. Gluconeogenesis
It’s an expensive but important process because .......
➢ Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates and Many Amino Acids
Are Glucogenic.
➢ The amino group of these amino acid can be removed
in liver mitochondria and the carbon skeleton enters
the gluconeogenesis pathway.
➢ No net conversion of fatty acids to glucose occurs in
mammalian cells. Rather, it converts to acetyl CoA
that can not be used as precursor for
gluconeogenesis.
104. Lipid
metabolism
Why should fat be the fuel
reserve of the body?
• Triacylglycerols (TG) are highly
concentrated form of energy, yielding 9
Cal/g, in contrast to carbohydrates and
proteins that produce only 4 Cal/g.
• The triacylglycerols are non-polar and
hydrophobic in nature, hence stored in
pure form without any association with
water (anhydrous form).
105. ➢ Breakdown of lipid is by hormone sensitive TG lipase enzyme.
➢ Hormones like epinephrine (most effective), norepinephrine, glucagon, thyroxine, ACTH
etc.— enhance the activity of adenylate cyclase and, thus, increase lipolysis.
➢ On the other hand, insulin decreases cAMP levels and thereby inactivates lipase. Caffeine
promotes lipolysis by increasing cAMP levels through its inhibition on phosphodiesterase
activity.
106. Fate of glycerol
• The adipose tissue lacks the enzyme
glycerol kinase, hence glycerol produced in
lipolysis cannot be phosphorylated here.
• It is transported to liver where it is
activated to glycerol 3-phosphate.
• The latter may be used for the synthesis of
triacylglycerols and phospholipids.
• Glycerol 3-phosphate may also enter
glycolysis by getting converted to
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
107. Fate of free fatty acids
• The fatty acids released in the adipocytes enter the circulation and are
transported in a bound form to albumin.
• The free fatty acids enter various tissues and are utilized for the energy.
• About 95% of the energy obtained from fat comes from the oxidation of
fatty acids.
• Certain tissues, however, cannot oxidize fatty acids, e.g. brain,
erythrocytes.
108. The process involves three stages
1. Activation of fatty acids occurring in the cytosol
2. Transport of fatty acids into mitochondria
3. β-Oxidation proper in the mitochondrial matrix.
FATTY ACID OXIDATION
• The fatty acids in the body are mostly oxidized by β-oxidation.
• β-Oxidation may be defined as the oxidation of fatty acids on the β-carbon atom.
• This results in the sequential removal of two carbon fragment, acetyl CoA.
109. 1. Activation of fatty acids
occurring in the cytosol
• Fatty acids are activated to acyl CoA
by thiokinases or acyl CoA
synthetases.
• Fatty acid reacts with ATP to form
acyladenylate which then combines
with coenzyme A to produce acyl CoA.
• The immediate elimination of PPi
makes this reaction totally
irreversible.
110. • The inner mitochondrial
membrane is
impermeable to fatty
acids.
• A specialized carnitine
carrier system (carnitine
shuttle) operates to
transport activated fatty
acids from cytosol to the
mitochondria.
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
111. This occurs into four stages
1. Acyl group of acyl CoA is
transferred to carnitine
catalyzed by carnitine
acyltransferase I (present on the
outer surface of inner
mitochondrial membrane).
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
112. This occurs into four stages
2. The acyl-carnitine is transported
across the membrane to
mitochondrial matrix by a
specific carrier protein.
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
113. This occurs into four stages
3. Carnitine acyl transferase II
(found on the inner surface of
inner mitochondrial membrane)
converts acyl-carnitine to acyl
CoA.
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
114. This occurs into four stages
4. The carnitine released returns
to cytosol for reuse.
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
115. Inhibitors of carnitine shuttle
• Malonyl CoA inhibits carnitine
acyl transferase.
• So, when fatty acid synthesis is
happening this pathway is
inhibited
2. Transport of acyl CoA
into mitochondria
Carnitine shuttle
116. Each cycle of β-oxidation, liberating two carbon unit-
acetyl CoA, occurs in a sequence of four reactions
1. Oxidation : Acyl CoA undergoes dehydrogenation by
an FAD-dependent flavoenzyme, acyl CoA
dehydrogenase. A double bond is formed between α
and β-carbons
3. β- Oxidation proper
117. Each cycle of β-oxidation, liberating two carbon unit-
acetyl CoA, occurs in a sequence of four reactions
2. Hydration : Enoyl CoA hydratase brings about the
hydration of the double bond to form β-hydroxyacyl
CoA.
3. β- Oxidation proper
118. Each cycle of β-oxidation, liberating two carbon unit-
acetyl CoA, occurs in a sequence of four reactions
3. Oxidation : β-Hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase
catalyzes the second oxidation and generates NADH.
The product formed is β-ketoacyl CoA.
3. β- Oxidation proper
119. Each cycle of β-oxidation, liberating two carbon unit-
acetyl CoA, occurs in a sequence of four reactions
4. Cleavage : The final reaction in β-oxidation is the
liberation of 2 carbon fragment, acetyl CoA from acyl
CoA. This occurs by a thiolytic cleavage catalysed by β-
ketoacyl CoA thiolase (or simply thiolase).
3. β- Oxidation proper
121. Important notes
• Unsaturated fat generates lesser energy than saturated fats
• Diseases like SIDS, Methylmalonic acidemia are result of
deficiencies that hinder the fatty acid metabolism
123. Ketogenesis
• The synthesis of ketone bodies occurs
in the liver.
• The enzymes for ketone body synthesis
are located in the mitochondrial matrix.
124. Utilization of ketone bodies
• They are sources of energy for the peripheral tissues
such as skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, renal cortex
etc.
• During prolonged starvation, ketone bodies are the
major fuel source for the brain and other parts of
central nervous system.
• The ability of the brain to utilize fatty acids for energy is
very limited. The ketone bodies can meet 50-70% of
the brain’s energy needs.
• This is an adaptation for the survival of the organism
during the periods of food deprivation.