This document discusses calcium and phosphate metabolism. It covers:
1. Calcium is found mainly in bones, soft tissues, and extracellular fluid. The majority is stored in bones.
2. Calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin which act on bones, kidneys and intestines to increase or decrease calcium absorption and resorption.
3. Hypercalcemia can be caused by primary hyperparathyroidism, cancer, multiple myeloma or excessive vitamin D intake. Hypocalcemia results from vitamin D deficiency or renal failure and causes symptoms like muscle spasms.
The document discusses disorders of calcium metabolism. It presents two clinical scenarios: a 59-year-old woman with hypercalcemia found on labs during a routine visit, and a 9-year-old boy admitted to the emergency department with acute pancreatitis and hypocalcemia after falling off his bike. It then outlines topics like the different forms of calcium, calcium homeostasis, regulation of calcium metabolism by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin, and disorders like hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, and hypoparathyroidism.
Calcium and phosphorus are essential minerals that have important roles in bone formation, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and other bodily functions. Calcium metabolism involves absorption in the small intestine, regulation by calcitriol, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin to maintain appropriate blood levels. Hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia can result from disorders of the parathyroid glands, kidneys, or vitamin D. Diseases like rickets and osteoporosis occur due to deficiencies in calcium or vitamin D leading to impaired bone mineralization.
Calcium and phosphorus are important minerals that make up bones and teeth and are involved in many metabolic processes. Calcium homeostasis is regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D which act on the intestines, kidneys, and bones. Hypocalcemia can result from hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, or renal disease and causes tetany and muscle spasms. Hypercalcemia has causes like hyperparathyroidism or cancer and symptoms of nausea, constipation, and renal problems. Phosphorus is found in bones and tissues and is needed for energy metabolism and cell signaling. Its absorption is regulated similarly to calcium. Hypophosphatemia can be caused by
This document summarizes mineral metabolism, focusing on calcium. It describes calcium as the most abundant mineral, mainly stored in bones. It discusses calcium absorption in the small intestine and regulation of blood calcium levels by the bones, kidneys, intestine, parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin working together. Hypercalcemia occurs when blood calcium levels exceed 11 mg/dL and can be caused by hyperparathyroidism.
Calcium mineral Biochemistry – Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews World Wide WebMaryam Fida
Most abundant electrolyte
1% of the body weight
Normal level: 9-11mg/dl
99% in bones as phosphates and carbonate
Bone calcium constantly exchanged with Ca++ of interstitial fluid
sources
Milk and milk products
Egg yolks, leafy vegetables
Absorption
Mostly in Proximal parts of small intestine by active transport
Distal segments by passive transport
This document provides an overview of calcium metabolism and disorders. It discusses:
1. The essential biochemical functions of calcium in muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, hormone secretion, and enzyme activation.
2. How calcium levels are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (vitamin D), and calcitonin through effects on intestinal absorption, renal excretion, and bone resorption.
3. Common calcium metabolism disorders like hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia, their causes, symptoms, and treatment. Primary hyperparathyroidism is the most common cause of hypercalcemia.
The document discusses minerals found in the human body. It is divided into 4 groups: Group I contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen which are components of macromolecules. Group II contains macro minerals like sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium which are required in amounts over 100 mg/day and deficiencies can be fatal. Group III contains trace minerals required in smaller amounts like cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Group IV contains additional trace minerals of unknown roles like cadmium, nickel, and tin. Calcium is discussed in detail regarding its dietary sources, body distribution, absorption, factors affecting absorption
The document discusses disorders of calcium metabolism. It presents two clinical scenarios: a 59-year-old woman with hypercalcemia found on labs during a routine visit, and a 9-year-old boy admitted to the emergency department with acute pancreatitis and hypocalcemia after falling off his bike. It then outlines topics like the different forms of calcium, calcium homeostasis, regulation of calcium metabolism by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin, and disorders like hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, and hypoparathyroidism.
Calcium and phosphorus are essential minerals that have important roles in bone formation, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and other bodily functions. Calcium metabolism involves absorption in the small intestine, regulation by calcitriol, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin to maintain appropriate blood levels. Hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia can result from disorders of the parathyroid glands, kidneys, or vitamin D. Diseases like rickets and osteoporosis occur due to deficiencies in calcium or vitamin D leading to impaired bone mineralization.
Calcium and phosphorus are important minerals that make up bones and teeth and are involved in many metabolic processes. Calcium homeostasis is regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D which act on the intestines, kidneys, and bones. Hypocalcemia can result from hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, or renal disease and causes tetany and muscle spasms. Hypercalcemia has causes like hyperparathyroidism or cancer and symptoms of nausea, constipation, and renal problems. Phosphorus is found in bones and tissues and is needed for energy metabolism and cell signaling. Its absorption is regulated similarly to calcium. Hypophosphatemia can be caused by
This document summarizes mineral metabolism, focusing on calcium. It describes calcium as the most abundant mineral, mainly stored in bones. It discusses calcium absorption in the small intestine and regulation of blood calcium levels by the bones, kidneys, intestine, parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin working together. Hypercalcemia occurs when blood calcium levels exceed 11 mg/dL and can be caused by hyperparathyroidism.
Calcium mineral Biochemistry – Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews World Wide WebMaryam Fida
Most abundant electrolyte
1% of the body weight
Normal level: 9-11mg/dl
99% in bones as phosphates and carbonate
Bone calcium constantly exchanged with Ca++ of interstitial fluid
sources
Milk and milk products
Egg yolks, leafy vegetables
Absorption
Mostly in Proximal parts of small intestine by active transport
Distal segments by passive transport
This document provides an overview of calcium metabolism and disorders. It discusses:
1. The essential biochemical functions of calcium in muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, hormone secretion, and enzyme activation.
2. How calcium levels are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (vitamin D), and calcitonin through effects on intestinal absorption, renal excretion, and bone resorption.
3. Common calcium metabolism disorders like hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia, their causes, symptoms, and treatment. Primary hyperparathyroidism is the most common cause of hypercalcemia.
The document discusses minerals found in the human body. It is divided into 4 groups: Group I contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen which are components of macromolecules. Group II contains macro minerals like sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium which are required in amounts over 100 mg/day and deficiencies can be fatal. Group III contains trace minerals required in smaller amounts like cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Group IV contains additional trace minerals of unknown roles like cadmium, nickel, and tin. Calcium is discussed in detail regarding its dietary sources, body distribution, absorption, factors affecting absorption
Calcium homeostasis involves absorption of calcium from the intestine, regulation by parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and calcitonin, and storage in bone. PTH increases calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption and renal reabsorption and vitamin D absorption. Vitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption. Calcitonin decreases calcium by inhibiting bone resorption. Hypocalcemia causes neurological symptoms and hypercalcemia causes gastrointestinal and renal issues. Conditions are diagnosed by calcium levels and other tests and treated by calcium supplementation or intravenous calcium for hypocalcemia and hydration and medications for hypercalcemia.
This document summarizes calcium metabolism and drugs that affect it. Calcium is essential for muscle, nerve, cardiac and blood coagulation functions. Its absorption is facilitated by vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin, while drugs like bisphosphonates, estrogen, fluoride, and mithramycin regulate bone resorption and serum calcium levels. Vitamin D increases calcium absorption and reabsorption, while parathyroid hormone and calcitonin work in opposing manners to control calcium levels in blood and bones. Disorders of calcium regulation like hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism are also discussed.
This document discusses calcium imbalance and hypocalcemia. It defines hypocalcemia and describes its various causes including prematurity, birth asphyxia, infants of diabetic mothers, vitamin D deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, and renal failure. The roles of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin in regulating calcium levels are explained. Symptoms of hypocalcemia include neuromuscular irritability, cardiac involvement, and dermatological manifestations. The pathophysiology and various factors affecting calcium absorption and homeostasis are also summarized.
The document discusses calcium metabolism. It states that 99% of calcium in the body is found in bones. Dietary sources of calcium include milk, cheese, fish and vegetables. The daily calcium requirement is 500mg for adults, 1200mg for children, and 1300mg for pregnant/lactating individuals. Calcium is absorbed in the duodenum and regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Disorders of calcium metabolism include hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, and hypoparathyroidism.
This document provides an overview of calcium metabolism. It discusses the regulatory mechanisms that control calcium levels in the blood and bones. The key hormones involved - parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D - and how they work to increase or decrease blood calcium levels by affecting absorption in the gut and resorption/deposition in bones. It also covers calcium storage in bones, excretion by the kidneys, interactions with other minerals, and disorders that can arise from issues with calcium regulation.
This document summarizes key information about calcium balance and drugs that affect it. It discusses the physiological roles of calcium, how plasma calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and calcitriol. It describes calcium absorption and excretion, preparations of calcium supplements, and uses of calcium supplements and drugs like PTH, calcitonin, and calcitriol to treat conditions like tetany, osteoporosis, and hypercalcemia. The actions, pharmacokinetics, and clinical uses of PTH, calcitonin, and calcitriol are also summarized.
Calcium is essential for many bodily functions and is mainly stored in bones. Calcium levels are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Hypocalcemia can result from hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, or kidney disease and causes neuromuscular symptoms. Hypercalcemia generally comes from excessive bone resorption due to cancers or hyperparathyroidism and can lead to gastrointestinal, renal, and neurological issues.
SOURCES ,BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTION AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCES OF CALCIUM AND PH...Aqsa Mushtaq
This document discusses calcium and phosphorus, two important minerals in the human body. It provides information on their sources, functions, and relationship to other minerals and hormones like vitamin D and parathyroid hormone. Specifically, it explains that calcium and phosphorus are required for bone strength, cell functions, muscle contractions, and other metabolic processes. It also outlines how calcium levels in the blood are regulated through homeostasis and what can cause hypocalcemia or low calcium levels in the blood.
Calcium is an essential mineral found mainly in bones. It is important for bone health, muscle function, nerve signaling and other cellular processes. Hypocalcemia occurs when calcium levels in the blood are low and can cause symptoms like weakness, tingling and seizures. It is usually caused by conditions that limit calcium absorption from the gut or reabsorption by kidneys. Treatment involves calcium supplementation either orally or by IV depending on severity of symptoms. Care must be taken to slowly correct calcium levels and monitor for side effects.
Hypercalcemia is commonly caused by primary hyperparathyroidism or malignancy. It can be life-threatening in severe cases. Diagnosis involves measuring serum calcium, PTH, and assessing for underlying causes. Treatment depends on the underlying condition but may involve surgery for hyperparathyroidism or addressing the malignancy. Complications can impact the kidneys, GI tract, cardiovascular system, muscles and bones.
Minerals are inorganic compounds required by the body as nutrients. There are two types of minerals - macro minerals which are needed in amounts over 100mg/day like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and micro minerals needed in smaller amounts like iron, zinc, and selenium. Sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are some of the major minerals discussed in the document in terms of their sources, recommended daily intake, absorption, functions, regulation, and disorders caused by deficiency or excess.
Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated by the interaction of the parathyroid gland, kidneys, bone, intestine, and hormones. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium levels by promoting bone resorption and renal calcium reabsorption. Vitamin D assists PTH by increasing intestinal calcium absorption. Disorders occur when calcium levels decrease or increase outside the normal range, which can cause symptoms like numbness, seizures, or kidney stones. Maintaining balanced calcium levels requires the coordinated functions of multiple organ systems and hormones.
This document discusses calcium disorders including an overview of calcium, hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, and inherited calcium disorders. It defines calcium and its roles in the body. Hypercalcemia is defined as a serum calcium level >10.5 mg/dL and can be caused by increased bone resorption, gastrointestinal absorption, or decreased renal excretion. It discusses the etiology, clinical exam, differential diagnosis, investigations, management, and complications of hypercalcemia. Hypocalcemia is defined as a total calcium <8.5 mg/dL and discusses its etiology including hypoparathyroidism, renal insufficiency, hypomagnesemia, vitamin D deficiency, and others. It also discusses the
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and is primarily stored in bones and teeth. It performs many important biochemical functions including bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, and nerve transmission. Calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium homeostasis by impacting absorption in the intestine and kidneys and mobilization from bones.
Calcium metabolism is regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin to maintain normal blood calcium levels. Calcium is important for many bodily functions and is found primarily in bones and blood plasma. Hormonal regulation involves calcium absorption from the gut, resorption from bones, and reabsorption in kidneys. Issues arise if these levels are too high (hyperparathyroidism) or low (hypoparathyroidism, osteoporosis, rickets, osteomalacia).
The document discusses renal handling of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It provides details on:
- Distribution and compartments of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in the body
- Mechanisms of renal reabsorption of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in different nephron segments including the proximal tubule, thick ascending loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule
- Hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphorus by parathyroid hormone and calcitriol
- Clinical conditions associated with abnormalities in calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium levels including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism
Major extracellular and intracellular electrolytes maintain homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms that control pH, ionic balances, and osmotic balances. The three fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma - contain varying amounts of major electrolytes including sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. Imbalances in electrolyte levels can disrupt cellular functions and cause conditions like hypokalemia, hypernatremia, or hypocalcemia. Precise control of electrolyte concentrations is vital for normal physiological activities.
SNEHA MANJUL PAPER -1 MSC 3 MECHANISM OF SPECIATION.pdfSneha Manjul
This document is an internal assessment submitted by a student named Sneha Manjul on the topic of mechanisms of speciation. It discusses several types of speciation, including allopatric speciation which occurs in geographically isolated populations, peripatric speciation which involves a small subset becoming isolated, and sympatric speciation which involves genetic isolation occurring within the same geographic area. It also mentions reproductive isolation, parapatric speciation involving reduced gene flow, and polyploidy as mechanisms of speciation.
fishfins- sneha manjul ( msc sem 3 ) paper - 3 ( Fish Biology and Genetic Res...Sneha Manjul
This document summarizes the different types of fins found in fish. It discusses that fins are composed of bony spines covered with skin that aid in movement, stability, and maneuverability. Fins are either paired (pectoral and pelvic) or unpaired (dorsal, caudal, anal) and have evolved for various functions like propulsion, stopping, and mating displays. The document describes the key features and functions of the different fin types. It concludes by noting additional small fins like adipose and finlets that further enhance swimming ability.
Calcium homeostasis involves absorption of calcium from the intestine, regulation by parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and calcitonin, and storage in bone. PTH increases calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption and renal reabsorption and vitamin D absorption. Vitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption. Calcitonin decreases calcium by inhibiting bone resorption. Hypocalcemia causes neurological symptoms and hypercalcemia causes gastrointestinal and renal issues. Conditions are diagnosed by calcium levels and other tests and treated by calcium supplementation or intravenous calcium for hypocalcemia and hydration and medications for hypercalcemia.
This document summarizes calcium metabolism and drugs that affect it. Calcium is essential for muscle, nerve, cardiac and blood coagulation functions. Its absorption is facilitated by vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin, while drugs like bisphosphonates, estrogen, fluoride, and mithramycin regulate bone resorption and serum calcium levels. Vitamin D increases calcium absorption and reabsorption, while parathyroid hormone and calcitonin work in opposing manners to control calcium levels in blood and bones. Disorders of calcium regulation like hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism are also discussed.
This document discusses calcium imbalance and hypocalcemia. It defines hypocalcemia and describes its various causes including prematurity, birth asphyxia, infants of diabetic mothers, vitamin D deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, and renal failure. The roles of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin in regulating calcium levels are explained. Symptoms of hypocalcemia include neuromuscular irritability, cardiac involvement, and dermatological manifestations. The pathophysiology and various factors affecting calcium absorption and homeostasis are also summarized.
The document discusses calcium metabolism. It states that 99% of calcium in the body is found in bones. Dietary sources of calcium include milk, cheese, fish and vegetables. The daily calcium requirement is 500mg for adults, 1200mg for children, and 1300mg for pregnant/lactating individuals. Calcium is absorbed in the duodenum and regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Disorders of calcium metabolism include hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, and hypoparathyroidism.
This document provides an overview of calcium metabolism. It discusses the regulatory mechanisms that control calcium levels in the blood and bones. The key hormones involved - parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D - and how they work to increase or decrease blood calcium levels by affecting absorption in the gut and resorption/deposition in bones. It also covers calcium storage in bones, excretion by the kidneys, interactions with other minerals, and disorders that can arise from issues with calcium regulation.
This document summarizes key information about calcium balance and drugs that affect it. It discusses the physiological roles of calcium, how plasma calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and calcitriol. It describes calcium absorption and excretion, preparations of calcium supplements, and uses of calcium supplements and drugs like PTH, calcitonin, and calcitriol to treat conditions like tetany, osteoporosis, and hypercalcemia. The actions, pharmacokinetics, and clinical uses of PTH, calcitonin, and calcitriol are also summarized.
Calcium is essential for many bodily functions and is mainly stored in bones. Calcium levels are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Hypocalcemia can result from hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, or kidney disease and causes neuromuscular symptoms. Hypercalcemia generally comes from excessive bone resorption due to cancers or hyperparathyroidism and can lead to gastrointestinal, renal, and neurological issues.
SOURCES ,BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTION AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCES OF CALCIUM AND PH...Aqsa Mushtaq
This document discusses calcium and phosphorus, two important minerals in the human body. It provides information on their sources, functions, and relationship to other minerals and hormones like vitamin D and parathyroid hormone. Specifically, it explains that calcium and phosphorus are required for bone strength, cell functions, muscle contractions, and other metabolic processes. It also outlines how calcium levels in the blood are regulated through homeostasis and what can cause hypocalcemia or low calcium levels in the blood.
Calcium is an essential mineral found mainly in bones. It is important for bone health, muscle function, nerve signaling and other cellular processes. Hypocalcemia occurs when calcium levels in the blood are low and can cause symptoms like weakness, tingling and seizures. It is usually caused by conditions that limit calcium absorption from the gut or reabsorption by kidneys. Treatment involves calcium supplementation either orally or by IV depending on severity of symptoms. Care must be taken to slowly correct calcium levels and monitor for side effects.
Hypercalcemia is commonly caused by primary hyperparathyroidism or malignancy. It can be life-threatening in severe cases. Diagnosis involves measuring serum calcium, PTH, and assessing for underlying causes. Treatment depends on the underlying condition but may involve surgery for hyperparathyroidism or addressing the malignancy. Complications can impact the kidneys, GI tract, cardiovascular system, muscles and bones.
Minerals are inorganic compounds required by the body as nutrients. There are two types of minerals - macro minerals which are needed in amounts over 100mg/day like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and micro minerals needed in smaller amounts like iron, zinc, and selenium. Sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are some of the major minerals discussed in the document in terms of their sources, recommended daily intake, absorption, functions, regulation, and disorders caused by deficiency or excess.
Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated by the interaction of the parathyroid gland, kidneys, bone, intestine, and hormones. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium levels by promoting bone resorption and renal calcium reabsorption. Vitamin D assists PTH by increasing intestinal calcium absorption. Disorders occur when calcium levels decrease or increase outside the normal range, which can cause symptoms like numbness, seizures, or kidney stones. Maintaining balanced calcium levels requires the coordinated functions of multiple organ systems and hormones.
This document discusses calcium disorders including an overview of calcium, hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, and inherited calcium disorders. It defines calcium and its roles in the body. Hypercalcemia is defined as a serum calcium level >10.5 mg/dL and can be caused by increased bone resorption, gastrointestinal absorption, or decreased renal excretion. It discusses the etiology, clinical exam, differential diagnosis, investigations, management, and complications of hypercalcemia. Hypocalcemia is defined as a total calcium <8.5 mg/dL and discusses its etiology including hypoparathyroidism, renal insufficiency, hypomagnesemia, vitamin D deficiency, and others. It also discusses the
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and is primarily stored in bones and teeth. It performs many important biochemical functions including bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, and nerve transmission. Calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium homeostasis by impacting absorption in the intestine and kidneys and mobilization from bones.
Calcium metabolism is regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin to maintain normal blood calcium levels. Calcium is important for many bodily functions and is found primarily in bones and blood plasma. Hormonal regulation involves calcium absorption from the gut, resorption from bones, and reabsorption in kidneys. Issues arise if these levels are too high (hyperparathyroidism) or low (hypoparathyroidism, osteoporosis, rickets, osteomalacia).
The document discusses renal handling of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It provides details on:
- Distribution and compartments of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in the body
- Mechanisms of renal reabsorption of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in different nephron segments including the proximal tubule, thick ascending loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule
- Hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphorus by parathyroid hormone and calcitriol
- Clinical conditions associated with abnormalities in calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium levels including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism
Major extracellular and intracellular electrolytes maintain homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms that control pH, ionic balances, and osmotic balances. The three fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma - contain varying amounts of major electrolytes including sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. Imbalances in electrolyte levels can disrupt cellular functions and cause conditions like hypokalemia, hypernatremia, or hypocalcemia. Precise control of electrolyte concentrations is vital for normal physiological activities.
SNEHA MANJUL PAPER -1 MSC 3 MECHANISM OF SPECIATION.pdfSneha Manjul
This document is an internal assessment submitted by a student named Sneha Manjul on the topic of mechanisms of speciation. It discusses several types of speciation, including allopatric speciation which occurs in geographically isolated populations, peripatric speciation which involves a small subset becoming isolated, and sympatric speciation which involves genetic isolation occurring within the same geographic area. It also mentions reproductive isolation, parapatric speciation involving reduced gene flow, and polyploidy as mechanisms of speciation.
fishfins- sneha manjul ( msc sem 3 ) paper - 3 ( Fish Biology and Genetic Res...Sneha Manjul
This document summarizes the different types of fins found in fish. It discusses that fins are composed of bony spines covered with skin that aid in movement, stability, and maneuverability. Fins are either paired (pectoral and pelvic) or unpaired (dorsal, caudal, anal) and have evolved for various functions like propulsion, stopping, and mating displays. The document describes the key features and functions of the different fin types. It concludes by noting additional small fins like adipose and finlets that further enhance swimming ability.
integratedfishfarming MSC SEM 3 PAPER 4 - (Fish Ecology, Aquaculture and Capt...Sneha Manjul
The document discusses integrated fish farming, which involves combining fish culture with other agricultural or livestock activities in a mutually beneficial way. It describes the logic behind integrated fish farming is to optimize resource utilization so that waste from one component becomes a resource for another. Some examples provided are: fish farming combined with paddy cultivation, horticulture, cattle, pigs, ducks or poultry. The advantages listed are more efficient use of land and resources, reduced costs from utilizing waste, and increased overall production and profits. In conclusion, integrated fish farming is presented as a sustainable approach to meet increasing food demands with small land areas through recycling of wastes and synergistic relationships between different farm components.
This document discusses Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It explains that organisms vary in traits, and traits that increase survival and reproduction in the current environment will be passed on to offspring, leading to evolution of new species over time as environments change. The key mechanisms are overpopulation causing competition over limited resources, variation in traits among individuals, and survival of the fittest where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and pass on those traits.
VENDOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PPT GROUP A .pptxSneha Manjul
The document discusses vendor management in Indian Railways. It describes how Indian Railways uses a vendor management system to select qualified vendors, monitor vendor performance, manage contracts and risks, and improve procurement efficiency. It outlines key objectives like ensuring the right vendors are selected on time and on budget. It also discusses challenges like limited vendor base and timely delivery, and mitigation strategies to address them.
sneha manjul msc 3 sem chemistrypresentation-mot-paper 5.pdfSneha Manjul
The document is an internal assessment submission by Sneha Manjul, a student in M.Sc. Semester III at Isabella Thoburn College in Lucknow, on the topic of molecular orbital theory. It introduces molecular orbital theory, which describes atomic bonding in terms of molecular orbitals formed from the combination of atomic orbitals. It outlines the principles of molecular orbital theory, including that molecular bonds have lower potential energy than separate atoms and that bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals form. It also discusses sigma and pi bonds, and how molecular bond order relates to bond strength and molecular stability.
The document discusses factors that affect the rate of enzyme action, including enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, pH, concentration of coenzymes and activators, time, and inhibitors. It provides details on how each factor influences the reaction rate. Specifically, it explains that enzyme activity is highest when substrate concentration is saturating but not excessive, and when other conditions like temperature and pH are optimal. The document also describes Michaelis-Menten kinetics and how reversible and irreversible inhibition can decrease reaction rates.
This document discusses nutrition, diet, and energy requirements. It defines key units of energy like calories and explains how the caloric values of macronutrients are measured. Carbohydrates have 4 calories per gram, lipids have 9 calories per gram, and proteins have 4 calories per gram. Energy expenditure is influenced by factors like basal metabolic rate, specific dynamic action of food, and physical activity levels. The document provides calculations to determine recommended daily energy intake for Indian men and women based on their activity levels.
Dr Shailesh Gupta( MLNMC) Fat soluble vitamins.pptSneha Manjul
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for human health but are needed in small amounts. Vitamin A is fat soluble and important for vision, gene regulation, skin health, and immune function. It is obtained from animal foods as retinol or from plant foods as beta-carotene. A deficiency can cause night blindness, skin lesions, susceptibility to infections, and even blindness.
This document summarizes iron metabolism. It discusses daily iron requirements, absorption and transport of iron, iron storage, and regulation of iron levels. It also covers iron deficiency anemia and iron overload disorders like hemochromatosis. Iron is absorbed in the duodenum and transported bound to transferrin. It is stored primarily in the liver as ferritin or hemosiderin. Iron levels are regulated by the liver peptide hepcidin which controls intestinal iron absorption and macrophage iron recycling by degrading the iron exporter ferroportin.
Mammals evolved from reptiles during the Triassic period, descending from reptilian synapsids. Key mammalian characteristics developed over time, including hairy skin, specialized dentition, and a high metabolic rate allowing for a constant body temperature. Early mammals originated from cynodont therapsids in the Late Triassic and included primitive groups like docodonts, triconodonts, symmetrodonts, pantotheres, and multituberculates which dominated until the rise of modern mammal groups in the Cenozoic. Key skull and jaw bones were adapted over generations to form the mammalian middle ear from ancestral jaw structures.
The document discusses the characteristics and phylogenetic relationships of prototheria, the subclass of primitive egg-laying mammals. It notes that prototheria include monotremes like the platypus and echidna, which lay eggs but nourish their young with milk. While prototheria share some traits with reptiles like claws and an interclavicle bone, they also share traits with mammals like fur, mammary glands, and a four-chambered heart. The document outlines the anatomical features and development of prototheria in detail.
1. Metatherians, or marsupial mammals, evolved from reptiles during the Triassic period and give birth to underdeveloped young that develop further in the mother's pouch.
2. They are found primarily in Australia and have hair-covered bodies, tails, and females with an abdominal pouch.
3. While showing both primitive and advanced traits compared to other mammals, metatherians are considered a transitional form between egg-laying prototherians and placental eutherians in mammalian evolution.
Crocodilians first appeared about 250 million years ago during the early Triassic period and diversified during the Mesozoic era. They are found mainly in tropical regions, living in freshwater habitats and feeding on fish, birds, and mammals. Crocodilians have thick, armored skin and a long body with a powerful tail. They are distinguished by variations in head shape, such as the long, narrow snout of the gharial. Crocodilians share affinities with dinosaurs, chelonians, lepidosaurs, birds, and mammals in features of their skeleton, muscles, and reproductive organs.
The document discusses the anatomy and modifications of the uterus in mammals. It describes the uterus as a pear-shaped organ located between the fallopian tubes and vagina that hosts embryo implantation and development. The structure of the uterus includes the endometrium lining, myometrium muscle layer, and surrounding connective tissue. The document outlines the cervix, corpus, and histology of the uterus, as well as its position, ligaments, and modifications among different mammal groups - including duplex, bipartite, bicornuate, and simplex uteri types.
This document summarizes the characteristics and adaptations of aquatic mammals. It describes two categories of aquatic mammals - amphibious mammals that live partly on land and partly in water, showing partial aquatic adaptations like webbed feet, and completely aquatic mammals that never come on land, showing complete aquatic adaptations like streamlined fish-like bodies. It also discusses the modifications, losses, and developments of new structures that aquatic mammals have undergone for an aquatic lifestyle, including modifications to their skeletons, lungs, teeth and other organs, as well as the loss of structures like hair and glands, and the development of new structures like tail flukes and baleen.
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
2. CALCIUM
• Divalent cation
• Fifth most common element.
• Structural &metabolic functions
• Average body contains approx .1kg of calcium.
• Calcium is found mainly in three compartments:
a)Skeleton
b)Soft tissues
c)Extracellular fluid.
3. CALCIUM
• 2% of body weight
• 99% in bones [present as
hydroxyapaptiteCa10(PO4)6 (OH)2]
• 1% in body fluids & soft tissues
• Plasma (Extracellular fluid)
2.25 – 2.75 mmol/l
• Cell (Intracellular fluid)
10-8 – 10-7 mol/l = 10-5 – 10-4 mmol/l
5. PLASMA CALCIUM
• For each 0.1 unit change in pH approx 0.2mg/dl
(0.05mmol/l)of inverse change occurs in serum free
calcium concentration.
• Alkalosis causes a decrease in free calcium and acidosis
increases free calcium.
• Corrected total calcium:
Total calcium= total calcium (mg/dl)+0.8(4-albumin[g/dl])
• Free form of calcium is the biologically active form.
6. Calcium/Phosphate: Distribution
Tissue Calcium Phosphate
Skeleton 99% 85%
Soft tissue 1% 15%
ECF <0.2% <0.1%
Total 1000 gm 600 gm
State Calcium Phosphate
Free (ionized) 50% 55%
Protein bound (albumin) 40% 10%
Complexed with anions 10% 35%
Total 8.6-10.3 mg/dL
2.15-2.57mmol/l
2.5-4.5 mg/dL
0.81-1.45mmol/l
7. ROLE OF CALCIUM
• excitability of cell membranes
• neuromuscular transmission and muscle
contraction
• Transmission of nerve impulses from presynaptic
to post synaptic region
• “second messenger”
• stimulates secretory activity of exocrine glands
and releasing of hormones
• contractility of myocardium
• blood coagulation
8. Sources & daily requirement of
calcium
• Milk, cheese ,yoghurt, egg, fish, vegetables are
good sources of calcium.
• Cereals contain only small amounts of calcium
but being staple diet in India, constitute the
major source of calcium.
• Daily requirement of calcium is :
• 500mg/day in adults.
• 1200mg/day in Child.
• 1500mg/day in pregnancy & lactation.
9. Absorption of calcium
• Absorbed mainly in the duodenum.
• Absorbed against a concentration gradient &
requires energy.
• Absorption requires a carrier protein helped
by calcium dependent ATPase.
10. Factors causing increased absorption
• Vitamin D: Calcitriol induces synthesis of
carrier protein(calbindin) in the intestinal
epithelial cells hence facilitating absorption.
• Parathyroid hormone: Increases calcium
transport from intestinal cells.
• Acidity favours calcium absorption.
• Amino acids like lysine & arginine increase
calcium absorption.
11. Factors causing decreased absorption
• Phytic acid: hexaphosphate of inositol is present
in cereals. Fermentation & cooking reduce
phytate content.
• Oxalates: present in some leafy vegetables which
forms insoluble calcium oxalates.
• Malabsorption :fatty acid is not absorbed causing
formation of insoluble calcium salt of fatty acid.
• Phosphate: high phosphate content causes
precipitation as calcium phosphate.
12. Calcium fluxes
• Three principal organs are involved in body’s
handling of calcium:
a)GIT
b)Bone
c)kidneys
14. Calcium balance:
• In adults: normally, calcium intake = output .
• In infancy and childhood: input > output positive
balance , due to active skeletal growth.
• In old age: calcium output > input negative balance;
marked in women after menopause, postmenopausal
osteoporosis.
16. Parathyroid hormone(PTH)
• Secreted by four parathyroid glands embedded in thyroid
tissue.
• Synthesized as pre-pro PTH with 115 aminoacids.
• In the endoplasmic reticulum & golgi apparatus prepro –
PTH is broken to form is broken to form mature PTH with
84amino acids .Storage of PTH is only for 1hour.
• The first 35 amino acids (constituting the N-terminal )are
the biologically active form.
• Normal range of PTH: 15-65ng/l
• Decreased serum calcium stimulates PTH secretion within
seconds.
• t1/2 of PTH in serum is 4minutes.
18. Effects of PTH
Bones:
• Resorption by osteoclasts;
indirectly stimulated by
PTH;
• binds to osteoblasts,
stimulates osteoblasts to
express RANKL,
• bind to osteoclast
precursors containing
RANK,
• stimulates these
precursors to fuse, forming
new osteoclasts;
• ↑ resorption of bone.
19. Effects of PTH
Kidneys:
Enhances reabsorption of calcium from tubules; increases the
excretion of phosphate; stimulates kidney to produce 1,25-
dihydroxyvitamin D (25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-
hydroxylase activity ), ↑ urinary cAMP
Intestine:
Vitamin D enhances the absorption of calcium in intestine;
activated vitamin D affects the absorption of calcium (as Ca2+
ions) by the intestine via calbindin.
Net effect of PTH – increase serum calcium,
decrease serum phosphorus
21. Vitamin D
• A group of sterols with a hormone-like function.
• Calcitriol (1, 25 diOH cholecalciferol = 1, 25 diOH D3) is
the biologically active molecule.
• Vitamins D2 & D3
– Preformed Vitamin D in the diet: they are needed only
when exposure to sunlight is limited.
– They are also available as supplement
– They are NOT biologically active
– They are activated in vivo to the biologically active form
• Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): 5 mg
cholecalciferol = 200 IU of vit D3 (or more)
24. VITAMIN D SYNTHESIS
SKIN LIVER KIDNEY
7-DEHYDROCHOLESTEROL
VITAMIN D3
VITAMIN D3
25(OH)VITAMIN D
UV
25-HYDROXYLASE
25(OH)VITAMIN D
1,25(OH)2 VITAMIN D
1a-
HYDROXYLASE
Predominant form
in plasma
Active vitamin D is transported in blood by vitamin D-binding protein
25.
26. Vitamin D functions
• Regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the
body (calcium homeostasis)
• Through:
– Increasing uptake of calcium by the intestine
– Minimizing loss of calcium by kidney
– Stimulating resorption of bone when
necessary
27. Calcitonin
• Calcitonin is
– a peptide hormone
– secreted by the
parafollicular or “C” cells
of the thyroid gland
– released in response to
high plasma calcium
• Net result of its action
plasma calcium & phosphate
28. Calcitonin :
• Calcitonin plasma [Ca2+] by:
– osteoclast activity
– renal reabsorption of calcium and phosphate
thereby increasing renal clearance.
Diagnostic role:
Tumor marker for medullary carcinoma of thyroid—
malignancy of thyroid C cells
The only Hypocalcemic hormone
29. Hypercalcemia
Symptoms:
• Depending on Calcium level, rapidity of onset,
state of hydration.
• Most develop symptoms at a level > 12mg/dL,
virtually all symptomatic > 14mg/dl
• Vague symptoms – fatigue, weakness,
anorexia, nausea, polyuria, dehydration,
lethargy, confusion, depression ,stupor, coma.
30. When to check serum calcium?
• Neurological symptoms: irritability ,seizures.
• Renal calculi
• Polyuria, polydypsia
• Ectopic calcification
• Chronic renal failure
• Suspected malignancy
• Prolonged drug treatment with thiazides,
vitamin D etc…
• Elevated ALP.
31. Hypercalcemia - Etiology
• Primary Hyperparathyroidism
• Cancer (metastatic,lymphoma) – most common in
hospitalized patients
• Multiple Myeloma
• Hyperthyroidism
• Hypervitaminosis D (or A)
• Immobilization
• Sarcoidosis
• Addisonian crisis
32. Hypercalcemia
• Idiopathic/spurious – venous stasis, postmenopausal
women
• Thiazide diuretics
• lithium
• Hypocalciuria – Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia
• Paget’s disease – hypercalcemia in conjunction with
immobilization
• Milk-Alkali syndrome – excessive intake of NaHCO3
and milk (calcium salt).
• Aluminum toxicity - rare
33. Hypercalcemia - Treatment
• Treat if symptomatic (mental status changes,
confusion, delusions)
• Treat if serum calcium > 15mg/dl
– Normal Saline bolus until volume restored to maintain
adequate hydration.
– Furosemide diuretics to promote calcium excretion
– Bisphosphonates(inhibitors of bone resorption)
– Calcitonin
– Steroids if vitamin D excess
– Empirical Mg and K therapy
– Treatment of underlying cause
34. Hyperparathyroidism
• Most common disorder of hypercalcemia
(ambulatory patients)
• Patients usually > 50 years of age
• Females > males 4 : 1
Symptoms:
• Painful bones, renal stones, abdominal groans,
and psychic moans
• Bone and joint pain, renal stones – late findings
35. Hyperparathyroidism - Diagnosis
• Elevated serum calcium
– Repeated measurements (can vary, minimal venous
occlusion, fasting)
– Ionized calcium may be more accurate, but not widely
available, must be sent on ice, etc.
– Corrected for serum albumin
• Elevated serum parathyroid hormone (intact)
• Usually found during workup for osteoporosis or
elevated calcium in lab work .
37. Hyperparathyroidism
• Secondary
– Results from physiologic or pathophysiologic
response to hypocalcemia.
– Can result from vitamin D deficiency or decreased
calcium intake(dietary or malabsorption).
– Most cases due to chronic renal failure –
decreased production of activated vitamin D.
38. Hyperparathyroidism
• Tertiary
– Due to prolonged hypocalcemia (usually due to
chronic renal failure).
– Renal osteodystrophy:
Hyperphosphatemia, hypocalcemia, low levels of
1,25(OH)2Vitamin D, elevated PTH.
– This results in parathyroid gland hyperplasia .
– May need parathyroidectomy.
39. Hypocalcemia - Symptoms
• Concentration of serum calcium less than
8.8mg/dl, it is hypocalcemia.
• Paresthesias, muscle stiffness and cramps,
fasciculations, tetany results if concentration
lower than 7.5mg/dl.
• Lower seizure threshold due to increased
neuromuscular excitability .
• CHF, dysrhythmia, hypotension
40. Hypocalcemia:signs
• Main manifestation is carpo-pedal spasm.
• Laryngismus & stridor are associated findings.
• Laryngeal spasm may lead to death.
• Chvotsek’s sign, trousseu’s sign.
• Increased QT interval in ECG .
43. HYPOCALCEMIA :Etiology
• Deficiency of vitamin D
• Hypoparathyroidism
• pseudohypoparathyroidism
• Increased calcitonin as in medulllary carcinoma
• Deficiency of calcium due to:
a)Pancreatitis
b)Malabsorption
c)Infusion of agents complexing calcium
d)Alkalosis
44. HYPOCALCEMIA :Etiology
• Increased phosphorus as in tumor lysis
syndrome, rhabdomyolysis
• hypoalbuminemia
• Infusion of large amounts of citrated blood as
in massive blood transfusions.
• Neonatal hypocalcemia
45. Treatment of hypocalcemia
• Oral calcium with vitamin D supplementation
• Treatment of underlying cause
• Tetany needs i.v infusion(usually 10ml 10%
calcium gluconate over 10 minutes ,followed
by slow infusion)
46. Biochemical bone diseases
Generalized defects in bone mineralization,
frequently associated with abnormal calcium or
phosphate metabolism, "biochemical or
metabolic bone diseases".
Osteoporosis
Rickets
Osteomalacia
The most
common
47. Osteomalacia and Rickets
Osteomalacia:
Defective bone mineralization in adults
Rickets:
Defective bone and cartilage mineralization in
children
Before introduction of vitamin D-
supplemented milk, children with
insufficient exposure to sunlight developed
Vit D deficiency
Not common these days as foods (milk,
oils) are now supplemented with vitamin D
48. Osteomalacia and Rickets, continued..
These conditions are due to:
Vitamin D deficiency
Impaired vitamin D metabolism
Calcium deficiency
Imbalance in calcium homeostasis
49. Osteomalacia and Rickets, continued..
Vitamin-D-dependent rickets types 1 and 2
(genetic disorders)
Rare bone diseases
Due to:
Defects in vitamin D synthesis: type 1 (can be
overcome by high doses of Vit D)
Defects in vitamin D receptor: type 2 (cannot be
overcome by high doses of Vit D, as the hormone
is unable to act)
50. Clinical features
Rickets
• Soft bones
• Bone pain
• Increased tendency of
bone fractures
• Skeletal deformity
(bowed legs)
• Muscle weakness
• Dental problems
• Growth disturbance
Osteomalacia
• Soft bones
• Bone pain
• Bone fractures
• Compressed vertebrae
• Muscle weakness
OSTEOMALACIA AND RICKETS, CONTINUED..
53. Osteoporosis
• Reduction in bone mass per unit volume
• Bone matrix composition is normal but it is reduced
• Post-menopausal women lose more bone mass than men
(primary osteoporosis)
• Increased risk for fractures.
54.
55.
56. Osteoporosis
• Secondary osteoporosis may be caused by:
– Drugs
– Immobilization
– Smoking
– Alcohol
– Cushing’s syndrome
– Gonadal failure
– Hyperthyroidism
– GI disease
57. Osteoporosis, continued..
Diagnosis
• Serial measurement of bone density
• No specific biochemical tests to diagnose or
monitor primary osteoporosis
• Secondary osteoporosis (due to other causes)
can be diagnosed by biochemical tests
• The test results overlap in healthy subjects
and patients with osteoporosis
• Common biochemical tests:
Urinary Hydroxyproline (bone resorption)
Alkaline phosphatase (bone formation)
Osteocalcin (bone formation)
Biochemistry Diagnosis is Unremarkable in Osteoporosis
58. PAGET’S DISEASE
• Localized disease of bone characterised by osteoclastic bone
resorption followed by disordered replacement of bone.
• Localized involvement of bone, all bones are not involved.
• Common in people above 40 years of age.
• Family history may be positive.
• Skull, femur ,pelvis, vertebra
• Serum ALP is more than 10 times URL.