This document provides information on various building materials used in construction including cementitious materials, aggregates, admixtures, mortars, concretes, burned clay units, building stones, gypsum products and glass. It describes the composition and properties of materials like Portland cement, masonry cement, lightweight aggregates, fibers, polymer concrete and glass block. Specification details are provided for materials selection in construction projects.

1. BUILDING MATERIALS
CONSTRUCTION
SPECIFICATION MATERIALS
PREPARED BY: DRAFTING STUDENT

2. CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
• Cementitious materials are one of the principal ingredients that make up the
concrete mixture.
• Cements come in various varieties and can
be classified based on their chemical
constituents. Modern cements include
silicate and aluminate cements, which use
calcium silicates and aluminates for setting.
Types of Cementitious Materials

3. Portland Cements
 It consists of four major compounds (lime, iron, silica, and alumina) and two minor
compounds (gypsum and magnesia).
 The process involves mining, grinding, and heating the materials in a rotary kiln. The
resulting cement clinker is chemically fused together, and it is then ground to a fineness.
 The material is sold in bags containing 94 lb of cement. Portland cement is commonly
used in concrete due to its strength and durability, which can be measured directly.

4. Aluminous Cements
 Aluminous cements are prepared by fusing a mixture of aluminous and calcareous
materials, such as bauxite and limestone, and grinding to a powder.
 These cements have rapid-hardening properties and high strength developed at early
ages. They are more resistant to sulfate waters and water containing aggressive carbon
dioxide or weak mineral acids than silicate cements.
 They are used in concretes with high early strength or sulfate resistance, and in
combination with refractory concrete.

5. Natural Cements
Natural cements are formed by
calcining a naturally occurring
mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous substances at a
temperature below sintering.
They vary in composition and
properties, primarily used in
masonry mortars and Portland-
cement concretes.
Limes
These are made principally of
calcium oxide (CaO), occurring
naturally in limestone, marble,
chalk, coral, and shell. For
building purposes, they are used
in mortars.

6. Masonry Cements
 Masonry cements, also known as mortar cements, are used to set unit masonry like
brick, tile, and stone.
 They can be hydraulic cements or mixtures of them. Commercial masonry cements are
often mixtures of Portland cement and pulverized limestone.
• They are sold in bags weighing 70-80 lb, with prices typically lower than Portland
cement.

7. AGGREGATES
Aggregate is a broad encompassing boulder, cobbles, crushed stone, gravel, air-
cooled blast furnace slag, native and manufactured sands, and manufactured and
natural lightweight aggregates. Aggregates may be further described by their
respective sizes.

8. Normal-Weight Aggregates
• They consist of naturally occurring gravels from land or marine
sources, as well as crushed rocks such as limestone, granite, or
basalt .
• These aggregates contribute to the overall density and strength of
concrete.
Heavyweight and Lightweight Aggregates
• These aggregates have a higher density and are typically
used for specific purposes where mass is crucial.
• magnetite, barite, limonite, ferrophosphorus
Lightweight Aggregates
• These aggregates are made from materials that are lighter,
resulting in a lower overall concrete weight.
• Lightweight aggregates can be natural or synthetic and weigh
less than 1,100 kg/m³.

9. Heavyweight and Lightweight
Aggregates
o Lightweight aggregates are materials used in concrete that have a lower density than normal-
weight aggregates.
o Characteristics:
 Porosity: Lightweight aggregates have a high internal porous microstructure,
contributing to their low bulk specific gravity.
 Absorption: They exhibit high absorption values, which affects concrete proportioning.
Prewetting the aggregate before batching can mitigate slump loss due to absorption.
 Materials: Common lightweight aggregates include expanded clay, shale, slate,
vermiculite, and perlite.
 Properties: Lightweight concrete has lower strength but offers advantages in reduced
dead load and thermal insulation.

10. are components added to concrete (other than water, aggregates, or cement)
to alter and enhance its properties. They can improve workability, reduce
permeability, increase strength, and influence other concrete characteristics.
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE
Chemical and Mineral Admixtures
1. Chemical Admixtures: These modify concrete during mixing, placing, and curing. Examples include:
o Water Reducers: Enhance workability by reducing water content.
o Retarding Admixtures: Delay concrete setting time.
o Accelerators: Speed up early strength development.
o Superplasticizers: Improve flowability without increasing water content.
o Specialty Admixtures: Address specific needs (e.g., corrosion inhibitors, shrinkage control agents).
2. Mineral Admixtures: These impact hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity. Common
types include:
o Fly Ash: A byproduct from coal combustion.
o Silica Fume: Ultrafine particles.
o Slag: From iron and steel production.
o Metakaolin: Calcined clay.

11. Steel Fibers:
Purpose: Enhance tensile strength and control cracking.
Shape: Typically hooked or straight.
Application: Used in industrial floors, tunnel linings, and
shotcrete.
Polypropylene Fibers:
Purpose: Improve impact resistance and reduce shrinkage
cracks.
Shape: Fine, synthetic fibers.
Application: Suitable for residential and commercial concrete.
Fibers for Concrete Mixes
These tiny reinforcements add strength and durability to concrete mixes.

12. Glass Fibers:
Purpose: Enhance flexural strength and prevent surface cracks.
Shape: Thin, glass strands.
Application: Precast elements, architectural panels.
Basalt Fibers:
Purpose: Provide corrosion resistance and fire resistance.
Shape: Derived from volcanic rock.
Application: Marine structures, bridges.
Fibers for Concrete Mixes

13. MORTARS AND CONCRETES
Mortars
Mortars are composed of a cementitious material, aggregate,
sand, and water. They are used for bedding unit masonry, for
plasters and stuccoes, and with the addition of coarse aggregate,
for concrete. Here consideration is given primarily to those mortars
used for unit masonry and plasters.
Property of mortar:
 Workability
 Water retention
 Strength
 Volume change
 Coefficients of thermal expansion

14. Portland-Cement Concrete
 Portland-cement concrete is a
mixture of Portland cement,
water, coarse and -ne aggregates,
and admixtures proportioned to
form a plastic mass capable of
being cast, placed, or molded into
forms that will harden to a solid
mass.
 Polymer concretes are composite materials
where polymer resins replace the
traditional cement binder. These
specialized concretes exhibit
improved chemical resistance, durability,
and flexibility, making them suitable for
applications in marine structures, repair
work, and corrosive environments.
Polymer Concretes
Concrete Masonry Units
 Concrete Masonry Units
(CMUs), commonly known
as cinder blocks or concrete
blocks, are prefabricated
building components made
from concrete.

15. BURNED-CLAY UNITS
• use of burned clay structural units dates from prehistoric times.
• modern burned clay units are made in a wide variety of sizes, shapes,
colors, and textures to suit the requirements of modern architecture.
Brick-Clay or Shale
 Brick-Clay: These bricks are made
from fired clay and are commonly used for
structural and facing components in
masonry construction.
 Shale: Shale is another type of sedimentary
rock that can be used to create fired bricks.

16. Structural Clay Tile
Structural clay tiles are hollow, burned-clay
masonry units with parallel cells used in
various constructions, including facing, load-
bearing, partition, repair, furring, floor, and
header tiles.
Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tile is a burned-clay product used
primarily for decorative and sanitary
effects. It is composed of a clay body on
which is superimposed a decorative glaze.
Architectural Terra Cotta
The term terra cotta has been applied for
centuries to decorative molded-clay objects
whose properties are similar to brick.
The molded shapes are -red in a manner
similar to brick.

17. BUILDING STONES
Building stones in the US include limestones, marbles, granites, and
sandstones, with serpentine and quartzite used less. Stones are excellent
building materials if selected wisely, but can be expensive.
Properties of Building Stones
Freezing and Thawing of Stone
helps engineers, architects, and builders make informed
decisions about erosion control, stability, and the long-term
performance of rock structures.
Temperature fluctuations to below and above 0 °C will
lead to the freezing and thawing of water in the pores
space inside the stone, respectively.
Permeability – of stones varies with type of stone, thickness, and driving
pressure that forces water through the stone.
Data on thermal expansion – limestone have a wide range of expansion
as compared with granite and slate. - marble loses strength after
repeated heating and cooling.

18. GYPSUM PRODUCTS
Gypsum board
 Gypsumboard is a product made of set
gypsum with paper bonded to it, suitable
for walls, ceilings, or partitions without
plaster. It's commonly used in drywall
construction and can be covered with
aluminum or woodgrain patterns.
Gypsum Lath
 Gypsum lath is a core of set gypsum
surfaced with paper, similar to
gypsumboard but designed for plaster
bonding.

19. Gypsum Sheathing Board
 Gypsum sheathing boards, similar to
gypsumboard, feature a water-repellent
paper surface and are typically 3-4 in thick,
6-12 ft long, and conform to ASTM C79
with square or V tongue-and-groove edges.
Gypsum Partition Tile or Block
 Gypsum tiles or blocks are used for
non-load-bearing partition walls and
for protection of columns, elevator
shafts, etc., against -re. They have
been essentially replaced by dry-
wall systems.
Gypsum Plank
 Precast gypsum roof construction products
consist of a plank core with wire-fabric
reinforcement and metal edges, available in
2-in and 3-in thicknesses, as per ASTM C377.

20. GLASS AND GLASS BLOCK
Glass is extensively used in modern construction for decorative and
utilitarian purposes. It comes in various thicknesses, strengths, double
layers, safety glass, and ornamental work in various textures, colors,
finishes, and shapes.
Window Glass
• Clear Window Glass is widely used in all building classes
and comes in grades A and B, with A for better buildings
and B for industrial buildings.
• It is classified as single-strength, double-strength, and
heavy-sheet, with maximum sizes of 40-50 in. Single-
strength and double-strength should not be used in areas
exceeding 12 ft2.

21. TYPES OF WINDOW GLASS
 Plate and Float Glass
 Processed Glass and Rolled Figured Sheet
 Laminated Glass
 Bullet-Resisting Glass
 Tempered Glass
 Tinted and Coated Glasses

22. Glass Block
• are made by first pressing or shaping half blocks to the desired form,
then fusing the half blocks to form a complete block.
• the center of the block is hollow and is under a partial vacuum, which
adds to the insulating properties of the block.
• glass block is commonly laid up in a cement or a cement lime mortar.

23. Mechanical Properties of Wood
 Wood's mechanical properties indicate its
ability to withstand external forces,
influenced by the application method,
density, and moisture content.
WOOD
Wood, a natural polymer from trees, is a building material with long, thin
tubes with tapered ends, cellulose crystals, and a complex lignin wall. Its
properties are oriented vertically.

24. Effects of Hygroscopic Properties of Wood
Wood can absorb moisture in two ways:
o Liquid Absorption: When in direct contact with water.
o Vapor Absorption: From the surrounding atmosphere.
Effects on Properties:
 Weight Increase
 Dimensional Changes
 Decay and Insect Resistance
 Working and Finishing

25. Destroyers and Preservatives
Wood Destroyers:
o These are agents that cause
deterioration, decay, or damage to
wood. Some common wood destroyers
include:
 Termites
 Carpenter Ants
 Wood-Boring Beetles
 Fungi (Rot)
 Moisture and Weathering
Wood Preservatives:
o These substances protect wood from
decay, insect infestations, and
environmental factors. Here are some
common types:
 Copper Naphthenate: An oil-
based preservative used for end
cuts on pressure-treated lumber.
 Borate-Based Preservatives:
Water-based treatments suitable
for interior framing.

26. Glues and Adhesives for Wood
Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) Glue:
• PVA glue is the most common type. It’s versatile and offers a strong bond.
• Ideal for general-purpose woodworking.
Epoxy:
• A versatile adhesive that works well on wood.
• Often used for bonding dissimilar materials or filling gaps.
Plywood is a type of wood used in construction,
consisting of thin sheets or veneers glued
together.
Plywood and Other Fabricated Wood Boards

27. STEEL AND STEEL ALLOYS
Iron and its alloys are generally referred to as ferrous metals. Even small
amounts of alloy change the properties of ferrous metals significantly. Also, the
properties can be changed considerably by changing the atomic structure of
these metals by heating and cooling
Types of Irons and Steels
Pure Iron: Silvery-white and malleable, pure
iron is easy to shape and cut. It conducts
electricity and heat efficiently and is readily
magnetized.

28. Alloys of Iron:
 Malleable iron
 Cast Iron
 Wrought Iron
Steel:
• Carbon Steels
• Alloy Steels
• Stainless Steels
• Tool Steels

29. Properties of Structural Steels
Tensile Properties:
o Tensile strength- refers to a material’s ability to withstand stretching without
deformation. Structural steel exhibits higher tensile properties compared to
other materials, making it a preferred choice in construction projects.
o Shear properties- are also essential. The shear strength of a steel structure is
approximately 0.57 times its yield stress.
o Hardness- measures a structural steel’s ability to withstand non-elastic
deformation. It affects wear resistance, toughness, and formability.
Relaxation:
o Structural steel experiences relaxation over time due to stress
relief. Understanding this property helps ensure long-term
stability and safety in structures.

30. Heat Treatment and Hardening of Steels
• Enhancing the mechanical properties of
steel, making it stronger, more durable, and
better suited for various applications.
Heat Treatment:
 Adjusting Carbon Content: The simplest way to alter steel’s mechanical
properties is by adjusting its carbon content. However, additional changes
are achievable through heat treatment.
 Austenite-to-Ferrite Transformation: Heat treatment involves accelerating
the cooling rate through the austenite-to-ferrite transformation point.
 Martensite Formation: Quenching steel at high rates (around 1,000°C per
minute) suppresses carbide formation and generates a new microstructure
called martensite.
 Tempering: To balance hardness and brittleness, martensitic steel is
tempered by raising its temperature (e.g., to 400°C) and holding it. This
process produces strong and tough steel

31. Steel Hardening:
 Carburizing: In case hardening, steel is exposed to carbon, infusing the surface
and strengthening it. Carburizing creates a hard outer layer while maintaining a
softer core.
 Gas Nitriding: Another case-hardening technique involves exposing hot steel to
nitrogen or ammonia gas. This reaction hardens the surface.
Effects of Grain Size
Heat-treated low-carbon steel can grow coarse grains for deep hardening and
higher load-carrying capacity, while fine grains enhance properties like notch
toughness and ductility. Grain growth can be inhibited by nonmetallic inclusions
or carbides.
Steel Alloys
Alloy steel is a type of steel with additional
elements like chromium, cobalt, columbium,
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, titanium,
tungsten, silicon, and vanadium, enhancing its
properties.

32. Types of Alloy Steels:
• Low-Alloy Steels: These contain alloying elements in smaller amounts (typically
less than 8% by weight). Low-alloy steels offer improved properties without
significant cost increases.
• High-Alloy Steels: These steels have higher alloying element content (up to 50% by
weight). They exhibit exceptional properties but are often more expensive to
produce.
Common Alloying Elements:
• Manganese (Mn): Enhances strength and hardenability.
• Nickel (Ni): Improves toughness and corrosion resistance.
• Chromium (Cr): Provides excellent corrosion resistance and
high-temperature strength.
• Molybdenum (Mo): Enhances hardness and high-temperature
strength.
• Vanadium (V): Increases strength and wear resistance.
• Silicon (Si): Improves strength and heat resistance.
• Boron (B): Enhances hardenability.

33. Corrosion of Iron and Steel
Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of metals due to chemical reactions with
substances in the surrounding environment, such as oxygen, water, and acids.
Prevention and Mitigation:
• Coatings: Applying protective coatings (such as paint, zinc, or epoxy) to create a
barrier between the metal and the environment.
• Galvanization: Coating steel with a layer of zinc to prevent rust formation.
• Cathodic Protection: Using sacrificial anodes (usually made of zinc or
magnesium) to attract corrosion away from the main metal.
• Alloy Selection: Choosing corrosion-resistant alloys (e.g., stainless steel) for
specific applications.
• Proper Design: Avoiding crevices, ensuring proper drainage, and minimizing
stress concentrations.

34. ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM-BASED
ALLOYS
• High purity aluminum (at least 99% pure) is soft and ductile but weak.
• it has excellent corrosion resistance and is used in buildings for such
applications.
• aluminum alloys are generally harder and stronger than the pure metal .
• pure aluminum is generally more corrosion resistant than its alloys .
Aluminum-Alloy Designations
 Aluminum alloys can be classified as cast and wrought, and
heat-treatable or non-heat-treatable. Wrought alloys can be
mechanically worked through processes like rolling,
extruding, drawing, or forging.
 Heat-treatable alloys can age spontaneously, produce stable
tempers, or undergo cold working or strain hardening.

35. Prevention of Corrosion of Aluminum
• Aluminum forms a protective film of aluminum oxide on its surface
• Aluminum should be protected from contact with alkaline substances
• Atmospheric-deposited dirt should be regularly removed
• Faying surfaces should be insulated using paints or gaskets

36. COPPER AND COPPER-BASED
ALLOYS
 Copper and its alloys are extensively utilized in the building
industry for various purposes, including corrosion resistance,
high electrical conductivity, strength, ductility, impact
resistance, fatigue resistance, and their ability to form complex
shapes.
Copper
suitable for roofing, flashing, gutters,
downspouts, fly screens and water pipes
TYPES:
• Soft-annealed Copper
• Cold-rolled hard Copper
• Electrolytic tough-pitch Copper
• Deoxidized

37. • Brasses are versatile metals with
high ductility, malleability, and color
options. Mechanical properties,
hardness, and grain size are
influenced by alloy composition,
grain size, and form.
Brass Nickel Silvers
 Nickel silvers are alloys of copper,
nickel, and zinc, ranging in color from
faint to blue.
 They are easily hot-worked and can be
fabricated into intricate shapes like
plumbing fixtures, stair rails, and
escalator parts.
Bronze
• Bronzes, originally copper and tin alloys, are
engineering metals with high mechanical
properties, including commercial wrought
bronzes with less than 10% tin and
phosphorus bronzes with excellent cold-
working properties.

38. LEAD AND LEAD-BASED ALLOYS
• Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal, which is extremely workable and
has good corrosion resistance
• used primarily for its corrosion resistance. Lead roofs 2000 years old are still
intact
LEAD ALLOYS
• sheet lead exhibits minimal corrosion penetrations over 10 years in
various atmospheric conditions
• alloying elements used with building leads include antimony and tin
for hardness and strength
• Low-melting alloys, including bearing metals, are composed of lead,
bismuth, tin, cadmium, and other metals like silver, zinc, indium, and
antimony

39. NICKEL AND NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS
 Nickel is primarily used as an alloying element with other metals, but also as
an electroplate or cladding metal, with Monel and Inconel being the
principal high-nickel alloys.
Properties of Nickel and Its Alloys
• MONEL - is widely used in kitchen equipment - widely used for handling
chlorides of many kinds
• INCONEL - is almost completely resistant to corrosion by food products,
pharmaceuticals, biologicals, and dilute organic acids.