Bryophytes are a diverse group of land plants.
Have large ecological impact.
23,000 described species world wide.
Largest group of land plants except for the flowering plants.
Integral part of natural environment of forest ecosystems.
Bryophytes are of small size.
Some of them attain a height up to half meter or a little more.
Store large amount of water, nutrients and carbon in their biomass.
In peatlands, bryophytes function as carbon sinks, which is a matter of great concern when considered with the rise of global carbon dioxide level.
Ability to remain alive for a long period without water even
under high temperature, and then resume photosynthesis within seconds after being moistened by rain or dew.
Most bryophytes are ectohydric, i.e., ability to absorb water, inorganic nutrients and mineral elements directly from the atmosphere rather than the soil and substratum.
Bryophytes possess short-lived sporophytic and dominant gametophytic phase.
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
Gnetum: A Powerpoint Presentation on Gymnospemsshivduraigaran
The Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants (spermatophytes) that includes conifers (Pinophyta), cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός gymnos, "naked" and σπέρμα sperma, "seed"), meaning "naked seeds". The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or solitary as in Yew, Torreya, Ginkgo.
The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants. The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla. Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as Coniferophyta) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct.
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo biloba (a single living species). Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of micorrhiza(Pinus), while in some others(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria.
Gnetum is a genus of gymnosperms, the sole genus in the family Gnetaceae and order Gnetales. They are tropical evergreen trees, shrubs and lianas. Unlike other gymnosperms, they possess vessel elements in the xylem. Some species have been proposed to have been the first plants to be insect-pollinated as their fossils occur in association with extinct pollinating scorpion flies. Molecular phylogenies based on nuclear and plastid sequences from most of the species indicate hybridization among some of the Southeast Asian species. Fossil-calibrated molecular-clocks suggest that the Gnetum lineages now found in Africa, South America and Southeast Asia are the result of ancient long-distance dispersal across seawater
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
Gnetum: A Powerpoint Presentation on Gymnospemsshivduraigaran
The Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants (spermatophytes) that includes conifers (Pinophyta), cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός gymnos, "naked" and σπέρμα sperma, "seed"), meaning "naked seeds". The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or solitary as in Yew, Torreya, Ginkgo.
The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants. The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla. Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as Coniferophyta) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct.
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo biloba (a single living species). Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of micorrhiza(Pinus), while in some others(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria.
Gnetum is a genus of gymnosperms, the sole genus in the family Gnetaceae and order Gnetales. They are tropical evergreen trees, shrubs and lianas. Unlike other gymnosperms, they possess vessel elements in the xylem. Some species have been proposed to have been the first plants to be insect-pollinated as their fossils occur in association with extinct pollinating scorpion flies. Molecular phylogenies based on nuclear and plastid sequences from most of the species indicate hybridization among some of the Southeast Asian species. Fossil-calibrated molecular-clocks suggest that the Gnetum lineages now found in Africa, South America and Southeast Asia are the result of ancient long-distance dispersal across seawater
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
Bryophytes are green thalloid plants which lack vascular system. They are great bio-indicator for air and water pollution. They show several symptoms when exposed to harmful pollutants presenr in our environment. Several bryophytes are sensitive to only specific pollutant and thus, we can detect and analyse the presence of such hazardous pollutants. Bryophytes have some water and air pollution sensitice species which cannot thrive in polluted areas while water and air pollution resistent species can only survive and grow in polluted areas. Bryophytes are of great importance to humans, one of its cause is as bioindicator.
Lichens , types of lichens based on growth and habitat, importance of lichens, fungal habits and colonization strategies, Air borne fungi and micotoxins.
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
Bryophytes are green thalloid plants which lack vascular system. They are great bio-indicator for air and water pollution. They show several symptoms when exposed to harmful pollutants presenr in our environment. Several bryophytes are sensitive to only specific pollutant and thus, we can detect and analyse the presence of such hazardous pollutants. Bryophytes have some water and air pollution sensitice species which cannot thrive in polluted areas while water and air pollution resistent species can only survive and grow in polluted areas. Bryophytes are of great importance to humans, one of its cause is as bioindicator.
Lichens , types of lichens based on growth and habitat, importance of lichens, fungal habits and colonization strategies, Air borne fungi and micotoxins.
PHYTOREMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SOILS (WAQAS AZEEM)Waqas Azeem
Metals contaminated soil are prevailing all over the world with different concentration. There is a need for a cost effective and environment friendly technique for the remediation of these soils, i.e. Phytoremediation...!
If you want to explore the role of Cyanobacteria in soil fertility in general & Azolla-Anabena association in particular, you can visit this PowerPoint Presentation.
HEAVY METALS POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT
Introduction:
In the era of rapid industrialization and urbanization pollution has totally deteriorated the quality and diversity of life and heavy metals contamination are major cause of environment deterioration which persuades severe poisonous effect on all the forms of living being. It poses threat due to its non-biodegradable, bioaccumulation, stability and persistence characteristics. Therefore, disrupt the natural ecosystem.
Definition: Any metallic chemical elements that has a relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous at low concentration.
In metallurgy, Heavy Metals are defined on the basis of density, having density more than 4g/cm3. In physics it is defined on the basis of atomic number having atomic number more than 20, while in chemistry on the basis of chemical behavior. But, modern definition of heavy metals describes as metallic elements and metalloids which are toxic to the environment and human.
• Heavy metal ranges from 3.5g/cm3 to 7 g/cm3 and have specific gravity at least 5 times more than water.
• These are often called ‘trace elements’ as required in small quantity (ppm or ppb)
• Heavy metals can be found in the forms of sulfates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and silicates.
• Heavy metal contamination and toxicity: a prominent environmental issue in water, soil/sediments and air.
• Heavy metals can be both beneficial and detrimental (at high concentration) to the environment and life.
• These are natural components of the Earth’s crust. Consumed by life forms via eating food, drinking water and inhaling air.
Physical Properties of heavy metals
• Lustre /shininess
• High melting point
• High density
• Good conductor of heat and electricity
• Non-degradable
• Malleable
• Ductile
Toxicological properties of Heavy Metals
• Persistence –long residual and half life
• Soil residence time is more than 1000years
• Acute toxicity-plants, animals and microorganisms
• Bioaccumulation and biomagnifications through food chain
• Chronic and sub-lethal effects at low concentration
• Synergistic effects
• Teratogenic and carcinogenic properties
Phytoremediation..A cost effective and ecofriendly technique for removal of h...Soumyashree Panigrahi
This reflects light on the effects of Heavy metals on the contaminated soil & how to over come the ill effects by phyto remediation..or use of plants in reclaiming the soil...
Discussed about Sources of Heavy metals , Sources of Heavy metals , Bioremediation, Biosorption by Fungi, Algae, Bacteria , Factors affecting Biosorption , Heavy metals relation with human beings
Despite these anomalies, microbes found in the environment are generally thought to consist of: Bacteria (including actinomycetes); Archaea ; Fungi; Protozoa; Algae; and Viruses.
Looking at molecular models in order to explore and understand them.
Does not necessarily involve molecular modeling (changing the existing model).
Macromolecules – Protein, DNA, RNA, or their complexes.
3-D view of different molecules on the computer.
Temperate forests and tropical rain forestsAlen Shaji
The word forest is derived from Latin ‘Foris’ meaning outside, the reference being to village boundary fence, and must have included all uncultivated and uninhabitated land.
Today a forest is any land managed for the diverse purposes of forestry whether covered with trees, shrubs, climbers, etc.
The forest biomes include a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities.
Optimum conditions of temperature and ground moisture responsible for the growth of trees contribute greatly to the establishment of forest communities.
In addition, 50 mm rainfall is a pre-requisite for the trees.
The nature of soil, wind and air currents determines the distribution (abundance or sparseness) of forest vegetation.
The temperate forest biomes are characterized by a moderate climate and broad-leaved deciduous trees, which shed their
leaves in fall, are bare over winter and grow new foliage in the spring.
The timing of cambial reactivation plays an important role in determination of the amount and quality of wood and the environmental adaptavity of trees.
Environmental factors, such as temperatures, influence the growth and development of trees.
Temperatures from late winter to early spring affect the physiological process that are involved in the initiation of cambial cell division and xylem differentiation in trees.
Cumulative elevated temperatures from late winter to early spring result in earlier initiation of cambial reactivation and xylem differentiation in tree stems and an extended growth period.
However, earlier cambial reactivation increases the risk for frost damage because the cold tolerance of cambium decreases after cambial reactivation.
A better understanding of the mechanisms that regulate wood formation in trees and the influence of environmental conditions on such mechanisms should help in efforts to improve and enhance the exploitation of wood for commercial applications and to prepare for climatic change.
Wood is the product of vascular cambium, and the formation of wood depends on the cambial activity of trees.
In temperate and cool zones, the vascular cambium of the stems of trees undergoes seasonal cycles of activity and dormancy, which are collectively known as annual periodicity.
This periodicity plays an important role in the formation of wood and reflects the environmental adaptivity of trees, for example their tolerance to cold in winter in cool and temperate zones.
The quantity and quality of wood depend on the division of cambial cells and the differentiation of cambial derivatives.
Cambial activity in trees is regulated by both internal factors, such as plant hormones, and environmental factors, such as, temperature, rainfall and photoperiod.
Temperature provides the appropriate physical conditions for the growth and development of trees in temperate and cool climates.
Timing of cambial reactivation is controlled by temperature, which influences both the quantity and quality of wood.
During the period from late winter to early spring, new cell plates are formed in the cambium and this springtime phenomenon is referred to as cambial reactivation.
To determine the variation and the limitation between species, many concepts have been proposed.
When a taxonomist study a particular taxa, he/she must adopted a species concept and provide a species limitation to define this taxa.
Plant kingdom as other living kingdoms has a hierarchy structure ends mostly with species rank.
Species are one of the basic units to compare in almost all fields of biology.
A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction.
Definition of a species as a group of interbreeding individuals cannot be easily applied to organisms that reproduce only or mainly asexually.
If two lineages of oak look quite different, but occasionally form hybrids with each other, should we count them as different species?
Idea of a species is something that we humans invented for our own convenience.
‘‘No matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as distinguish a species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa” - JOHN RAY.
Used a sexual system ‘‘natural system” for defining species - LINNAEUS.
‘‘A species is a collection of all the individuals which resemble each other more than they resemble anything else, which can by natural fecundation produce fertile individuals, and which reproduce themselves by generation, in such a manner that we may from analogy suppose them all to have sprung from one single individual” - DE CANDOLLE.
To modifying the structure of a specific gene.
Gene targeting vector introduced into the cell.
Vector modifies the normal chromosomal gene through homologous recombination.
Useful in treating some human genetic disorders – Hemophilia, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
Treating human diseases by genetic approaches – Gene Therapy.
Gene Therapy – Replacing the defective gene by normal copy of the gene.
Expressed sequence tag/EST is a short partial sequence, typically 200-400 bp long, of a complimentary DNA/Cdna.
EST is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence.
Used to identify gene transcripts, and are instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination.
Approximately 74.2 million ESTs are available in public databases.
EST results from one-short sequencing of a cloned cDNA.
Low-quality fragments.
Length is approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides.
Cells of multicellular organisms detect and respond to countless internal and extracellular signals that control their growth, division, and differentiation during development, as well as their behavior in adult tissues.
At the heart of all these communication systems are regulatory proteins that produce chemical signals, which are sent from one place to another in the body or within a cell, usually being processed along the way and integrated with other signals to provide clear and effective communication.
Study of cell signaling has traditionally focused on the mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells communicate with each other using extracellular signal molecules such as hormones and growth factors.
Many bacteria, respond to chemical signals that are secreted by their neighbors and accumulate at higher population density. This process, called quorum sensing, allows bacteria to coordinate their behavior, including their motility, antibiotic production, spore formation, and sexual conjugation.
Communication between cells in multicellular organisms is mediated mainly by extracellular signal molecules.
Most cells in multicellular organisms both emit and receive signals. Reception of the signals depends on receptor proteins, usually (but not always) at the cell surface, which bind the signal molecule. The binding activates the receptor, which in turn activates one or more intracellular signaling pathways or systems.
These systems depend on intracellular signaling proteins, which process the signal inside the receiving cell and distribute it to the appropriate intracellular targets.
The targets that lie at the end of signaling pathways are generally called effector proteins, which are altered in some way by the incoming signal and implement the appropriate change in cell behavior.
Depending on the signal and the type and state of the receiving cell, these effectors can be transcription regulators, ion channels, components of a metabolic pathway, or parts of the cytoskeleton.
About 20,000 species.
Eukaryotic cell and contain all the membrane bound organelles.
Thallus is green due to the presence of green pigment chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is contained in chloroplast.
Pyrenoids embedded in chloroplast.
Cytoplasm contains vacuoles.
Motile cell of primitive forms contains eye spot or stigma.
Reserve carbohydrates are in the form of starch.
Cell wall invariably contains cellulose.
Produce motile reproductive bodies generally with two or four flagella.
Most are aquatic but some are subarial.
Several species of ulvales and siphonales are marine.
Some strains of chlorella are thermophilic.
Species of chlamydomonas and some chlorococcales occur in snow.
Coloechaete nitellarum is endophytic.
Cephaleuros is parasitic – cause ‘red rust of tea’.
Live epizoically on or endozoically within the bodies of lower animals – chlorella is found in hydra; chlorella beneath the scales of fish; characium on the antennae of mosquito.
Green algae in assosciation with the fungi constitute lichens.
Enzyme immobilization is defined as confining the enzyme molecules to a distinct phase from the one in which the substrates and the products are present.
It is achieved by fixing the enzyme molecules to or within some suitable material.
Most developments in biotechnology originated for their potential applications in health care.
Contributions of biotechnology are more frequent, more notable and more rewarding in health sector.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. BRYOPHYTES - INTRODUCTION
Bryophytes are a diverse group of land plants.
Have large ecological impact.
23,000 described species world
wide.
Largest group of land plants
except for the flowering plants.
Integral part of natural
environment of forest ecosystems.
Bryophytes are of small size.
Some of them attain a height up to half metre or a little
more.
Store large amount of water, nutrients and carbon in
their biomass.
3. In peatlands, bryophytes function as carbon sinks,
which is a matter of great concern when considered
with the rise of global carbon
dioxide level.
Ability to remain alive for a
long period without water even
under high temperature, and
then resume photosynthesis
within seconds after being
moistened by rain or dew.
4. Most bryophytes are ectohydric, i.e., ability to
absorb water, inorganic nutrients and mineral
elements directly
from the atmosphere
rather than the soil and
substratum.
Bryophytes possess
short-lived sporophytic
and dominant
gametophytic phase.
5. Various modes of reproduction play an important
role in the life cycle of bryophytes especially in
stands within high disturbance.
Able to grow in stressful conditions like cold,
drought, shades and in nutrient poverty conditions.
6. Bryophytes play an efficient role to filter the
nutrients reaching to soil by
absorbing them directly from the
atmosphere in liquid phase.
Bryophytes protect the soil
against erosion due to their
netted and webbed protonemata
and gametophores to cover the
exposed substrata and help in
increasing water-holding capacity
of the soil.
7. Role of bryophytes in an ecosystem is governed by four
properties,
1] Ability to establish soils.
2] To trap and hold moisture.
3] To exchange cations.
4] To tolerate desiccation.
Bryophytes have ecological association with
microorganisms, protozoans, rotifers, nematodes,
earthworms, molluscs, insects, spiders and many other
invertebrates.
Bryophytes furnish a favourable substratum and seed
bed for the establishment of seedlings of higher plants.
They provide congenial habitat for nitrogen-fixing
Cyanophyceae, e.g., Nostoc, Scytonema.
Mosses alone account about 75% of the annual
accumulation of phosphorus.
8. Some taxa such as Ceratodon purpureus and
Funaria hygrometrica produce sporophytes under
highly polluted conditions but differ in reproductive
behaviour as it shows differences in tolerance.
Tortula laevipila produces few sporophytes in urban
population in comparison to rural area.
Highest mercury contents 12,100 Hg g–1 has been
reported from the basal segments of Jungermannia
vulcanicola growing in an acidic stream.
Atmospheric pollutants along with some minerals
directly enter the cell of the bryophytes.
Ultimate survival of bryophytes is critically
dependent on the preservation of their natural
habitats.
9. ECOLOGY OF BRYOPHYTES
Ecology of bryophytes means the study of the
relation of individual
bryophyte plant
communities to
complex environment.
The place where a
bryophyte or
community of
bryophytes lives is
called its habitat.
10. Bryophytes grow in different habitats which are as
follows;
1] TERRESTRIAL.
2] AQUATIC.
a] Fresh water.
b] Marine water.
3] EPIPHYTIC OR CORTICOLOUS.
a] Obligate epilithic or saxicolous.
b] Facultative epilithic or saxicolous.
4] EPIPHYLLOUS OR FOLIICOLOUS.
a] Obligate epiphyllous or foliicolous.
b] Facultative epiphyllous or foliicolous.
5] DESERT BRYOPHYTES.
11. Bryophytes play important role in an ecosystem in
many ways,
1] Great capacity to stabilize soil, particularly
mosses are very effective and successful soil binder
and nutrient trapper.
2] High water holding capacity and ability to
tolerate desiccation.
3] Form a moist wet ground to form a
cushion; which ultimately helps to grow the other
vascular seedlings later; This maintains the high
humidity regime within such forest.
4] Filtering takes place through fall and runoff
water through the bryophyte mat and peat using
cation exchange system.
12. BRYOPHYTES AS BIOINDICATORS
The habitat diversity, structural simplicity,
totipotency, rapid rate of multiplication and high
metal accumulation capacity make bryophytes an
ideal organism for pollution studies.
Decline and absence of bryophyte populations
especially epiphytes is a phenomenon primarily
induced by air pollution caused by gaseous and
particulate pollutants.
There are two categories of bryophytes in response
to pollution;
13. 1] Which are very sensitive to pollution and show
visible symptoms of injury even in the presence of
minute quantities of pollutants. This serve as good
indicators of the degree of pollution and also of the
nature of pollutant.
2] which have the capacity to absorb and retain
pollutants in quantities much higher than those
absorbed by other plant groups growing in the
same habitat. These plants trap and prevent
recycling of such pollutants in the ecosystem for
different periods of time. Analysis of such plants
gives a fair idea about the degree of metal
pollution.
14. POLLUTANTS
Pollutants may be gaseous such as carbon monoxide (CO),
fluorides, hydrocarbons (HC), hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
nitrogen oxides (NO), Ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
aldehydes, lead and automobile exhaust fumes.
Nitrogen oxides have also greatly increased in the cities with
the rise of use of automobile.
Particulate pollutants are dust, particles of metallic oxides,
coal, soot and fly ash, cement, liquid particles, heavy metal
and radioactive materials.
Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant formed by the action of
sunlight on nitrogen dioxide and on certain hydrocarbons.
Air pollutant either in a gaseous state mixed with air or in a
liquid state affected by dew, rain, or snow, will be noxious to
bryophytes attached to the bark.
15. EFFECT OF POLLUTANTS ON BRYOPHYTES
Bryophytes have been disappearing from urban
industrial environments
because of their sensitivity to
polluted air.
Air pollution inhibits
gametangial formation and
sexual reproduction in
bryophytes.
16. They also reduce photosynthesis by degrading
chlorophyll and growth of
plants and eventually cause
their death.
When the metal enters the
cell, it inhibits the
photosynthetic activity.
Enzymes and membrane are
poisoned when a heavy metal
gains access to the cell
interiors.
17. It is evidenced that when the pollution level goes
down, the percentage
frequency of species
goes up, which subsequently
increases the
fertility percentage.
Bryophytes die within a short
period of time depending on
the level of pollution, when
transferred along with their
substrates from unpolluted to polluted areas in a city
or around a factory.
18. The common symptoms of injury are plasmolysis
and chlorophyll degradation
in the leaf cells.
SO2 exposed plants showed
brownish spots on the
chloroplasts and plasmolysis
in cells of leaves which
contributed to the ultimate
death of the plants.
19. Ozone uptake by the plant species often results in
acute injury, premature ageing and senescence.
Bryophytes show impairment of photosynthesis or
increased membrane leakage when subjected to an
acute (150 p.p.b) ozone exposure.
Several species of Sphagnum species were found to
be chronic to O3 exposure.
Bryophytes are able to concentrate heavy metals in
large amounts than that of vascular plants.
The older tissues of the plant have higher
concentrations of the metallic ions as compared to
the younger portions.
20. The ability of mosses to accumulate heavy metals
depends upon the total
leaf surface and the
number of thin walled
parenchymatous cells.
Atrichum undulatum is
highly sensitive to air
pollution and proves best
as a bioindicator.
Ceratodon purpureus is
not a good indicator
because its leaves have
a small surface and
contains many thick walled
cells.
21. Carpet forming bryophytes has proved to be rapid
and inexpensive
method for surveying
heavy metal
deposition in the
terrestrial ecosystem.
Accumulation of
mercury is found
greater
in Dicranum scoparium.
22. The gametophytes of moss can accumulate iron 5-10
times more readily than the vascular plants.
The concentration of Al, Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ni, Pb, Ag,
Ti, Vi, Zn and Zr were higher in bryophytes than those
in angiosperms.
Bryophytes are able to concentrate rare earth
elements.
Elements which are rarely founds in other plants were
found in bryophytes.
Bi were found in the thallose liverworts like
Conocephalum conicum and Marchantia polymorpha,
Sn in the saxicolous mosses Grimmia laevigata and
Hedwigia ciliata and Ag in Atrichum angusatum and
Polytrichum commune. Cu, Pb and B are found in the
substrate of Mielichhoferia.
23. Accumulation of mercury (Hg) is found greater in
Dicranum scoparium than Polytrichum commune
which is due to the differences in their life forms.
Some bryophytes are metal tolerant and are able to
withstand levels of heavy metals that are toxic to
other species.
Marchantia polymorpha, Solenostoma crenulata,
Ceratodon purpureus and Funaria hygrometrica are
some of the metal tolerant populations.
Bryophytes growing on stone walls can tolerate
higher levels of pollution than those of tree trunks.
24. POLLUTION AND HEAVY METAL
INDICATOR
Bryophytes are bioindicators of air, water pollution
and accumulators of heavy metals.
Communities of mosses, lichens and liverworts
reduce in size over a period in such disturbed
environmental conditions (air pollution).
Mosses disappear from such polluted areas accept
a few tolerant species; Bryum, Ceratodon,
Dicranoweisia, Funaria, Hyophila and Tortula.
Pylaisiella and Orthotrichum are shown to change
the colour of leaves due to chlorophyll degeneration
when they are exposed to HF polluted area.
25. Bryophytes are very sensitive to hydrogen fluoride,
even a low concentration
of HF (0.001 to 0.1 ppm)
and show symptoms of
injury.
Even a low concentration
of SO2 inhabits the
flourishing of the mosses,
as protonemata are
especially sensitive to the
pollutant.
26. Sphagnum have a peculiar character to bind
radioactive compounds
through cation exchange and
also used for purifying
contamination of waste
water.
Some species of
Anomodon, Dicranum,
Eurhynchium, Leucodon,
Mnium, Rhynchostegium
and Thuidium are able to
accumulate Cesium.
27. Species of Brachythecium, Buxbaumia and Grimmia
are able to concentrate much strontium than that
found in their substrata.
Some terrestrial bryophytes accumulate uranium.
High levels of pollutants like fluoride, sulphur
dioxide, acidified rain and heavy metals are
responsible to inhibit sporophyte growth in many
moss species.
Aquatic bryophytes are the best monitoring agents
for heavy metal pollution as they are able to
concentrate these heavy metals and can release
these metals only after decomposition.
28. High concentration of cadmium in some bryophytes
shows a distinct change in pigmentation and growth
rate of these
lower plants.
In Marchantia
and Funaria, the
zinc concentration
(> 50 ppm) reduce
the spore germination.
Species of Bryum, Dicranella and Polytrichum are
able to tolerate high levels of zinc (55000 ppm),
cadmium (610 ppm) and copper (2700 ppm) in their
tissue.
29. BRYOPHYTES AS BIOINDICATORS OF WATER
POLLUTION
Life form of bryophytes is very simple so they are
comparatively more
affected by polluted
waters than other groups.
Polluted water also
affects the benthic and
marginal soils thus it
directly affects the aquatic
bryoflora and directly
or indirectly affects those
bryophytes which grow on its banks.
30. Contamination – Addition of unwanted organisms
or nutrients pollution
to widely used for both
addition and deletion of
important elements and
organisms.
Pollution – Any foreign
particles [which is living
or non living or both] that seen more in quantity than
permmisable amount and become injurious to
living organism.
31. Pollutants change the quality of water which is
determined on the basis of several physico-chemical
and biological parameters.
Physico-chemical parameters generally affect the
plant life.
Because of their simple plant body, the bryophytes
appear to be sensitive to polluted waters due to
following reasons;
1] Plant body is gametophytic; very small, soft and
delicate; thus bryophytes mostly prefer moist places
to grow.
2] plants lack well developed vascular system
comprising of xylem and phloem.
32. 3] Plants lack well developed root system but develop
rhizoids which
help in absorption of
water.
4] Water is essential
for fertilization.
Bryophytes absorb the
water either by rhizoids
or by entire surface of
plant or by both ways.
Movement of water
within plant body of
a bryophyte takes place either by central strand or by free
space of cell to cell or external capillary space.
33. Therefore, if water is polluted it certainly affects the life
forms of bryophytes
including external
morphology,
anatomy, fertilization,
spore
germination and
physiology.
Therefore, bryophytes
are
more sensitive to
water
pollution than air
pollution.
34. Bryophytes can provide an integrated information
of pollution within a system.
Some aquatic bryophytes which are pollution
tolerant species have been recommended to
monitor the levels of pollution in water; these
species are;
1] Amblystegium riparium – It is a moss which is
cosmopolitan in distribution and found in running
and stagnant water or sewage rich in nutrition.
2] Eurhynechium riparioides – It is a moss which is
found only in northern region of world; it grows in
ponds and rivers rich in nutrition; reported
pollutant contents and heavy metals of these
waters.
35. 3] Fontinalis antipyretica – A moss which is also
restricted in northern part and grows in both
stagnant and running water; analyse cu and pb in
the moss.
4] Fontinalis squamosa – It is also restricted in
distribution; reported the details of pollutants and
heavy metals.
BRYOPHYTES WHICH APPEAR ON THE BANKS OF
RIVER GANGA AND ARE AFFECTED BY RIVER
WATER QUALITY
1] Riccia gangetica – A pollution tollerant species;
tubercualte rhizpoids and marginal scales are more
developed in highly polluted sites; it is a
monoecious species.
36. 2] Riccia frostii – A pollution sensitive species which
grows in lesser
polluted sites;
sensitivity towards
polluted water is
due to presence of
only smooth walled
rhizoids, absence
of scales and separate male and female plants.
3] Funaria hygrometrica – Found only on those sites
where cremation takes place and benthic and
marginal soil is rich in P an Ca.
37. 4] Physcomitrium indicum – It is a moss which
absorbs the heavy metals.
Bryophytes growing on the
river banks of Ganga absorb
very high levels of heavy
metals like Cr, Zn, and Ni.
38. THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF USING BRYOPHYTES AS INDICTORS
IN AQUATIC HABITATS ARE;
1] There is a constant uptake of pollutants from water over the
entire surface.
2] Most aquatic bryophytes are fairly tolerant against a wide
range of pollutants like heavy metals, which they tend to
accumulate.
3] Bryophytes react quickly to changes in water quality
according to increases or decreases in nutrients or toxic
substances.
4] They form stable and homogeneous populations and they
show green leaves and active metabolism throughout the
year, which favours them over higher plants which lie
dormant during the winter season, or algae which often show
restricted life spans.
5] There is only a limited number of submerged species in the
northern hemisphere, which is in contrast to sometimes
enormous biomass easily to identify in most of the cases.
39. Based on their ability either to accumulate
pollutants or
respond sensitively
to changes in
water quality,
bryophytes are
used either as
accumulation
indicators or the bryophyte species assemblages are
investigated for indication of water quality
(including the nutrient status) or changes in the pH.
40. BRYOPHYTES AS BIOINDICATORS OF AIR
POLLUTION
Bryophytes are very sensitive to air pollution.
Air becomes polluted
when air pollutants,
which are beyond
permissible limits and
injurious to living
organism, are found mixed
within it.
According to World Health
Organisation [WHO], air pollution may be defined as
limited to situations in which the outdoor ambient
atmosphere contains materials in concentrations which
are harmful to man and his environment.
41. Classification of air pollution.
1] Combustion – From fuel
burning, transportation and
open burning dumps.
2] Manufacturing process –
Chemical plants, metallurgical
plants and waste recovery.
3] Agricultural activities –
Crop spraying as weed and pest
control, gases evolved from
the fields.
43. Classification of air pollutants.
1] In the form of gases;
a] Sulphur dioxide.
b] Flouride.
c] Hydrogen sulphide.
d] Ozone.
e] Nitrogen dioxide.
f] Ammonia.
g] Methane.
h] Petrolium vapours.
i] Hydrogen flouride.
44. 2] In the form of particulate matters – as solids and
liquid aerosols.
3] In the form of microorganism and
spores or pollens of plants.
Some species of bryophytes are
pollution tolerant and some are
pollution sensitive.
Within last century the
belgium bryoflora has lost 20 species of
liverworts and 94 species of mosses.
Dutch bryoflora was depleted
by 15% of terrestrial and 13% of epiphytics.
In amsterdam 23 species of bryophytes are now extict
from the city.
45. Air pollutants affect the habitat and growth forms
of bryophytes.
Sensitivity of
bryophytes towards air
pollution increases from
terricolous to saxicolous
and corticolous species.
Moss protonema is
more sensitive than its
mature gametophores.
46. Tortula princeps, Bryum rubrum, Ceratodon
purpureus and Pohila cruda
are able to tolerate levels of
pollution on stone walls than
on tree trunks.
Growth form of bryophytes
in respect to tolerance of
pollution gradually increases
from tall turf, large cushion
or leafy liverworts to smooth and
small cushion and finally most resistant are sort turf
and thalloid liverworts.
47. Fertility of bryophytes decreases as pollution level
increases.
Bryophyte species sensitive to air pollution are;
1] ulota crispa.
2] Platydictya subtile.
3] Paraleucobryum longifolium.
4] Frullania muscicola.
5] Trocholejeunea sandvicensis.
6] Lophocolea minor.
48. CONCLUSION
Bryophytes have been an
essential group in the field of
bioindication for at least four
decades.
Bryophytes should be
acknowledged by law as
indicator species for the
setting and control of
deposition limits for heavy
metal imissions.
Bryophytes proved well in
many fields of environmental control.
49. Bryophytes seem to become an important group of
species especially
in the field of climate
change research in
the future, which will
be a major task in the
next years.
Bryophytes which
are mostly small in
size, are essentially for the integral understanding
and control of the present state and future
development of our environment.
50. Bryophytes have an important role with respect to
environmental conditions.
It is proved that these are the first colonies of the
terrestrial habitats and represent a bridge between
the Pteridophytes on one hand and the Algae on
the other.
51. Species richness of Bryophytes is very high and placed
next to Angiosperms
and has a great capability to
grow even in adverse
conditions, while other
vascular plants are not able to
do so, bryophytes are the best
pollution indicators.
However, this lower group
of plants received lesser
attention in this country and
remained neglected in
exploration, due to their less
direct economic potentials.
52. At present, the impact upon these lower plants is more
adverse due to
global problems, which
is governed by several
factors like; global
warming, shifting of
monsoon,drought,
landslides, earthquakes,
manmade pollution
and habitat distraction
by broad constructions and post effect of tourism.
53. More bryo-exploration is essential for the
unexplored areas and necessary steps should be
taken up for their
conservation.
India one of the
12-megabiodiversity
countries of the
world, possesses a
large area and a
variety of phytoclimatic conditions which contribute
to great diversity of the flora.
54. Pande (1958) divided these zones in to 7 bryogeographical
regions namely the Western and Eastern Himalaya, Punjab
and west Rajasthan, Gangetic plains, Central India, Deccan
Plateau and the Western and Eastern Ghats.
Bryophytes are ecologically significant and play a key role
in ecosystem dynamics.
55. They cover the barren soil and conserve the soil
and nutrients, provide habitats for invertebrates
and maintain water balance in the forest.
Bryophytes contain some specific compounds,
which possess antibiotic and antimicrobial
properties.