An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital electronic circuit that performs arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
This is in contrast to a floating-point unit (FPU), which operates on floating point numbers. It is a fundamental building block of many types of computing circuits, including the central processing unit (CPU) of computers, FPUs, and graphics processing units.
A single CPU, FPU or GPU may contain multiple ALUs
History Of ALU:Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945 in a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Typical Schematic Symbol of an ALU:A and B: the inputs to the ALU
R: Output or Result
F: Code or Instruction from the
Control Unit
D: Output status; it indicates cases
Circuit operation:An ALU is a combinational logic circuit
Its outputs will change asynchronously in response to input changes
The external circuitry connected to the ALU is responsible for ensuring the stability of ALU input signals throughout the operation
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital electronic circuit that performs arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
This is in contrast to a floating-point unit (FPU), which operates on floating point numbers. It is a fundamental building block of many types of computing circuits, including the central processing unit (CPU) of computers, FPUs, and graphics processing units.
A single CPU, FPU or GPU may contain multiple ALUs
History Of ALU:Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945 in a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Typical Schematic Symbol of an ALU:A and B: the inputs to the ALU
R: Output or Result
F: Code or Instruction from the
Control Unit
D: Output status; it indicates cases
Circuit operation:An ALU is a combinational logic circuit
Its outputs will change asynchronously in response to input changes
The external circuitry connected to the ALU is responsible for ensuring the stability of ALU input signals throughout the operation
This is a brief introductory lecture I conducted on von Neumann Architecture. Von Neumann is a fundamental computer hardware architecture based on the store program concept, designed by John von Neumann.
I discussed here different kinds of logic gate , their equivalent circuit, truth table,set representation,wave form etc. I also have discussed universal gate and their universality. I hope it will be helpful for others.
Binary addition, Binary subtraction, Negative number representation, Subtraction using 1’s complement and 2’s complement, Binary multiplication and division, Arithmetic in octal, hexadecimal number system, BCD and Excess – 3 arithmetic
This is a brief introductory lecture I conducted on von Neumann Architecture. Von Neumann is a fundamental computer hardware architecture based on the store program concept, designed by John von Neumann.
I discussed here different kinds of logic gate , their equivalent circuit, truth table,set representation,wave form etc. I also have discussed universal gate and their universality. I hope it will be helpful for others.
Binary addition, Binary subtraction, Negative number representation, Subtraction using 1’s complement and 2’s complement, Binary multiplication and division, Arithmetic in octal, hexadecimal number system, BCD and Excess – 3 arithmetic
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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2. George Boole
In1854, George Boole published
“An investigation into the Laws
of Thought, on which are
founded the Mathematical
Theories of Logic and
Probabilities.”
Boole outlined a system of logic
and a corresponding algebraic
language dealing with true and
false values.
3. Boolean Logic
Boolean logic is a form of
mathematics in which the
only values used are true
and false.
Boolean logic is the basis
of all modern computing.
There are three basic
operations in Boolean logic
– AND, OR, and NOT.
4. The AND Operation
AND
b
T F
a
T T F
F F F
The AND operation is a binary
operation, meaning that it needs
two operands.
c = a AND b
Both a and b must be true for the
result to be true.
5. The OR Operation
The OR operation is also a
binary operation with two
operands.
c = a OR b
If either a OR b is true, then
the result is true.
OR
b
T F
a
T T T
F T F
6. The NOT Operation
The NOT operation is a unary
operation with only one operand.
c = NOT (a)
It simply reverses the true or
false value of the operand.
NOT
a
T F
F T
7. Let’s use Boolean logic to
examine class.
Please stand up if you are:
◦ girl
◦ AND black hair
◦ AND left handed
Please stand up if you are:
◦ girl
◦ OR black hair
◦ OR left handed
And NOT
How has the group changed depending on the logical
operator used.
8. Logical Conditions
Logical comparisons that are
either true or false are most
often used as the basis for
the true and false values in
Boolean logic.
They are often used for simple
conditions in branching and
looping instructions.
If (hours > 40)
pay overtime
If (age < 12)
stay in the back seat
While (count 10)
print count
increment count
9. Nesting
When more than one element is in parentheses, the sequence is
left to right. This is called "nesting.“
◦ (foxes OR rabbits) AND pest control
◦ foxes OR rabbits AND pest control
◦ (animal pests OR pest animals) NOT rabbits
10. Order of precedence of Boolean
operators
The order of operations is: AND, NOT, OR, XOR
Parentheses are used to override priority.
Expressions in parentheses are processed first.
Parentheses are used to organize the sequence and
groups of concepts.
11. Write out logic statements using
Boolean operators for these.
• You have a buzzer in your car that sounds when your
keys are in the ignition and the door is open.
• You have a fire alarm installed in your house. This
alarm will sound if it senses heat or smoke.
• There is an election coming up. People are allowed to
vote if they are a citizen and they are 18.
• To complete an assignment the students must do a
presentation or write an essay.
12. Basis for digital computers.
The true-false nature of Boolean
logic makes it compatible with
binary logic used in digital
computers.
Electronic circuits can produce
Boolean logic operations.
Circuits are called gates.
◦ NOT
◦ AND
◦ OR
13. AND gate
The AND gate has the following symbol and
logic table.
Two or more input bits produce one output bit.
Both inputs must be true (1) for the output to be
true.
Otherwise the output is false (0).
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
14. OR gate
The OR gate has the following symbol and logic table.
Two or more input bits produce one output bit.
Either inputs must be true (1) for the output to be true.
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
15. NOT gate
The simplest possible gate is called an "inverter," or a NOT gate.
One bit as input produces its opposite as output.
The symbol for a NOT gate in circuit diagrams is shown below.
The logic table for the NOT gate shows input and output.
A Q
0 1
1 0
16. Combine gates.
Gates can be combined.
The output of one gate can become the input of another.
Try to determine the logic table for this circuit.
17. What happens when you add a
NOT to an AND gate?
Not
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
18. Can you make an AND gate from
an NAND?
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
19. “Exclusive” gates
Exclusively OR gate are true if either input is true but
not both.
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
20. Truth Tables
xy = x AND y = x * y x + y = x OR y x bar = NOT x
AND is true only if OR is true if either NOT inverts the bit
both inputs are true inputs are true We will denote x bar as ~X
NOR is NOT of OR NAND is NOT of AND XOR is true if both inputs
differ
21. Logic Gates
Here we see the logic gates
that represent the boolean
operations previously
discussed
XOR looks like OR
but with the added
curved line
We typically represent NOR and NAND by the two
on the left, but the two on the right are also correct
22. How do we use gates to add two
binary numbers?
Binary numbers are either 1 or 0, either on or off.
Have two outputs.
Need a gate to produce each output.
0 0 1 1
+ 0 + 1 + 0 + 1
00 01 01 10
A B Q CO
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
23. An Example: Half Adder
• There are 4 possibilities
when adding 2 bits
together:
0 + 0 0 + 1 1 + 0 1 + 1
• In the first case, we have a sum
of 0 and a carry of 0
• In the second and third cases,
we have a sum of 1 and a carry
of 0
• In the last case, we have a sum
of 0 and a carry of 1
• These patterns are
demonstrated in the truth table
above to the right
• Notice that sum computes
the same as XOR and carry
computes the same as AND
• We build an Adder using just
one XOR and one AND gate
The truth table for Sum and Carry
and a circuit to compute these
24. Full Adder
The half adder really only does half the work
◦ adds 2 bits, but only 2 bits
If we want to add 2 n-bit
numbers, we need to also
include the carry in from the
previous half adder
◦ So, our circuit becomes more
complicated
In adding 3 bits (one bit from
x, one bit from y, and the
carry in from the previous
addition), we have 8
possibilities
◦ The sum will either be 0 or 1 and the
carry out will either be 0 or 1
◦ The truth table is given to the right
25. Building a Full Adder Circuit
The sum is 1 only if one of x, y
and carry in are 1, or if all three
are 1, the sum is 0 otherwise
The carry out is 1 if two or three
of x, y and carry in were 1, 0
otherwise
◦ The circuit to the right captures this
by using 2 XOR gates for Sum and 2
AND gates and an OR gate for Carry
Out