Somaclonal Variation in Plant tissue culture - Variation in somaclones (somatic cells of plants)
Somaclonal variation # Basis of somaclonal variation # General feature of Somaclonal variations # Types and causes of somaclonal variation # Isolation procedure of somaclones via without in-vitro method and with in-vitro method with their limitations and advantages # Detection of isolated somaclonal variation # Application (with examples respectively related to crop improvement) # Advantages and disadvantages of somaclonal variations.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IZwrkgADM3I
Also watch, Gametoclonal variation slides to understand, how to changes occur in gametoclones of plants.
https://www.slideshare.net/SharmasClasses/gametoclonal-variation
ROLE OF JASMONIC ACID IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT &DEFENCE MECHANISMBHU,Varanasi, INDIA
jasmonic acid is a plant immune hormone whicch are imortant for plant defence mechanism and development..its have important role in root growth inhibition,tuber formation,trichome formation ,senescence,flower developmentand increasing arbasculer mycorrhizal activity in root plants,recently it has been reported in various development in rice crop like spikelet development etc.....in defence its play a crucial role against insect and pathogen resistance.Recent insights into the JAs mediated plant defense cascade and better knowledge of key regulation of plant growth and development processes will help us to design future crops with increased biotic stress resistance and better adaptability under changing climate
The biosynthesis of the main auxin in plants (indole-3-acetic acid [IAA]) has been elucidated recently and is thought to involve the sequential conversion of Trp to indole-3-pyruvic acid to IAA. However, the pathway leading to a less well studied auxin, phenylacetic acid (PAA), remains unclear. Here, we present evidence from metabolism experiments that PAA is synthesized from the amino acid Phe, via phenylpyruvate. In pea (Pisum sativum), the reverse reaction, phenylpyruvate to Phe, is also demonstrated. However, despite similarities between the pathways leading to IAA and PAA, evidence from mutants in pea and maize (Zea mays) indicate that IAA biosynthetic enzymes are not the main enzymes for PAA biosynthesis. Instead, we identified a putative aromatic aminotransferase (PsArAT) from pea that may function in the PAA synthesis pathway.
Plant hormones are naturally occurring organic substances that affect physiological processes. There are five major groups of plant hormones, such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene. In this presentation gibberellins is described with its biosynthesis, transport and physiological effects.
the presentation encompasses auxin synthesis, conjugation, degradation, polar and lateral transport and signalling and how all of these together have a bearing on programming and design of the whole plant
Somaclonal Variation in Plant tissue culture - Variation in somaclones (somatic cells of plants)
Somaclonal variation # Basis of somaclonal variation # General feature of Somaclonal variations # Types and causes of somaclonal variation # Isolation procedure of somaclones via without in-vitro method and with in-vitro method with their limitations and advantages # Detection of isolated somaclonal variation # Application (with examples respectively related to crop improvement) # Advantages and disadvantages of somaclonal variations.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IZwrkgADM3I
Also watch, Gametoclonal variation slides to understand, how to changes occur in gametoclones of plants.
https://www.slideshare.net/SharmasClasses/gametoclonal-variation
ROLE OF JASMONIC ACID IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT &DEFENCE MECHANISMBHU,Varanasi, INDIA
jasmonic acid is a plant immune hormone whicch are imortant for plant defence mechanism and development..its have important role in root growth inhibition,tuber formation,trichome formation ,senescence,flower developmentand increasing arbasculer mycorrhizal activity in root plants,recently it has been reported in various development in rice crop like spikelet development etc.....in defence its play a crucial role against insect and pathogen resistance.Recent insights into the JAs mediated plant defense cascade and better knowledge of key regulation of plant growth and development processes will help us to design future crops with increased biotic stress resistance and better adaptability under changing climate
The biosynthesis of the main auxin in plants (indole-3-acetic acid [IAA]) has been elucidated recently and is thought to involve the sequential conversion of Trp to indole-3-pyruvic acid to IAA. However, the pathway leading to a less well studied auxin, phenylacetic acid (PAA), remains unclear. Here, we present evidence from metabolism experiments that PAA is synthesized from the amino acid Phe, via phenylpyruvate. In pea (Pisum sativum), the reverse reaction, phenylpyruvate to Phe, is also demonstrated. However, despite similarities between the pathways leading to IAA and PAA, evidence from mutants in pea and maize (Zea mays) indicate that IAA biosynthetic enzymes are not the main enzymes for PAA biosynthesis. Instead, we identified a putative aromatic aminotransferase (PsArAT) from pea that may function in the PAA synthesis pathway.
Plant hormones are naturally occurring organic substances that affect physiological processes. There are five major groups of plant hormones, such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene. In this presentation gibberellins is described with its biosynthesis, transport and physiological effects.
the presentation encompasses auxin synthesis, conjugation, degradation, polar and lateral transport and signalling and how all of these together have a bearing on programming and design of the whole plant
Presentation for Plant Physiology. I was in charge of creating and designing the presentation as well as formating the images and information. Our projec won our class competition in regards to overall look and presentation.
Plant growth regulators (also called plant hormones) are numerous chemical substances that profoundly influence the growth and differentiation of plant cells, tissues and organs.
Biosynthesis of different types of amino acids.pptxlaija s. nair
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, playing a crucial role in various biological processes. They are categorized into essential and non-essential amino acids based on the body's ability to synthesize them. While essential amino acids must be obtained through the diet, non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body.
General Pathway of Amino Acid Biosynthesis:
Amino acid biosynthesis involves complex metabolic pathways that differ for each amino acid. However, a general overview can be provided:
Carbon Skeleton Formation:
Amino acids are composed of a central carbon atom (alpha carbon) bonded to a hydrogen atom, an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.
The carbon skeletons of amino acids are derived from intermediates of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and pentose phosphate pathway.
Transamination:
A crucial step in amino acid biosynthesis is the transamination reaction, where an amino group is transferred from an amino acid donor to an alpha-keto acid acceptor.
This reaction is catalyzed by aminotransferases or transaminases, and pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) acts as a cofactor.
Specific Pathways for Essential Amino Acids:
Essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesized de novo by the body, have specific biosynthetic pathways.
For example, lysine and methionine biosynthesis involve the aspartate family pathway, while valine, leucine, and isoleucine biosynthesis occur through the branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) pathway.
Non-Essential Amino Acid Biosynthesis:
Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body through various pathways.
For instance, glutamate serves as a precursor for the synthesis of several amino acids, including proline, arginine, and ornithine.
Specific Amino Acid Biosynthesis Pathways:
Serine and Glycine Biosynthesis:
Serine is derived from 3-phosphoglycerate and can be converted to glycine.
The enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase plays a key role in interconverting serine and glycine.
Histidine Biosynthesis:
Histidine biosynthesis involves a unique pathway that starts with phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) and includes several enzymatic steps.
Tyrosine and Phenylalanine Biosynthesis:
The shikimate pathway is essential for the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, including tyrosine and phenylalanine.
Chorismate is a key intermediate in this pathway.
Arginine Biosynthesis:
Arginine biosynthesis involves the urea cycle and the ornithine biosynthetic pathway.
Citrulline serves as a key intermediate in these processes.
Proline Biosynthesis:
Proline is derived from glutamate through a two-step reduction process involving pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C).
Regulation of Amino Acid Biosynthesis:
Amino acid biosynthesis is tightly regulated to maintain a balance between the body's requirements and energy conservation.
Feedback inhibition and genetic regulation play key roles in controlling the activity of enzymes involved in these p
This presentation will provide a description about the biosynthesis of plant growth regulator- Cytokinins and gibberalins and their role in plant growth and development
Photosynthesis is an inevitable process that keeps us alive.It is the main source for food and it's byproduct keeps us breathing. This ppt is the detailed explanation of photosynthesis and the components involved in it. Here you can easily understand the concept and you are able to strengthen your grip on this topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
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Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
1. 1
Dept. of Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology,
CPCA, S. D. Agricultural University.
Prepared by: Darshan T. Dharajiya
Ph.D. (Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology)
2. Content
• Biosynthesis of Auxin
• Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
• Biosynthesis of Cytokinin
• Biosynthesis of Ethylene
• Biosynthesis of Abscisic acid
• References
3. Plant Hormones
• Plant hormones: They are organic compounds
synthesized in one part of the plant and
translocated to another part, where in very
low concentration it causes a physiological
response.
4. • Plant development was thought to be
regulated by only five types of hormones:
1)Auxins
2)Gibberellins
3)Cytokinins
4)Ethylene
5)Abscisic acid.
Plant Hormones
5.
6. Auxin
• The first plant hormone we will consider is
auxin.
• In the mid-1930s it was determined that auxin
is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).
• Several other auxins in higher plants were
discovered later, but IAA is by far the most
abundant and physiologically relevant.
7. Site of Synthesis
• IAA biosynthesis is associated with rapidly
dividing and rapidly growing tissues, especially
in shoots.
• Although virtually all plant tissues appear to
be capable of producing low levels of IAA,
shoot apical meristems, young leaves, and
developing fruits and seeds are the primary
sites of IAA synthesis.
8. Biosynthesis Pathways
• Multiple Pathways Exist for the Biosynthesis of
IAA.
• IAA is structurally related to the amino acid
tryptophan, and early studies on auxin
biosynthesis focused on tryptophan as the
probable precursor.
9. • The IPA pathway: The indole-3-pyruvic acid
(IPA) pathway
• It is probably the most common of the
tryptophan-dependent pathways.
• It involves a deamination reaction to form IPA,
followed by a decarboxylation reaction to
form indole-3-acetaldehyde (IAld).
• Indole-3-acetaldehyde is then oxidized to IAA
by a specific dehydrogenase.
Biosynthesis Pathways
10. • The TAM pathway: The tryptamine (TAM)
pathway
• It is similar to the IPA pathway, except that the
order of the deamination and decarboxylation
reactions is reversed, and different enzymes are
involved.
• Species that do not utilize the IPA pathway
possess the TAM pathway.
• In at least one case (tomato), there is evidence
for both the IPA and the TAM pathways.
Biosynthesis Pathways
12. • The IAN pathway: The indole-3-acetonitrile
(IAN) pathway
• Tryptophan is first converted to indole-3-
acetaldoxime and then to indole-3-acetonitrile.
• The enzyme that converts IAN to IAA is called
nitrilase.
• The IAN pathway may be important in only three
plant families: the Brassicaceae (mustard family),
Poaceae (grassfamily), and Musaceae (banana
family).
Biosynthesis Pathways
13. • IAM Pathway: the indole-3-acetamide (IAM)
pathway
• Another tryptophan-dependent biosynthetic
pathway—one that uses indole-3-acetamide
(IAM) as an intermediate is used by various
pathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas
savastanoi and Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
• This pathway involves the two enzymes
tryptophan monooxygenase and IAM hydrolase.
• The auxins produced by these bacteria often
elicit morphological changes in their plant hosts.
Biosynthesis Pathways
14.
15. Gibberellins
• In the 1950s the second group of hormones, the
gibberellins (GAs), was characterized.
• The gibberellins are a large group of related
compounds (more than 125 are known) that,
unlike the auxins, are defined by their chemical
structure rather than by their biological activity.
• Gibberellins are most often associated with the
promotion of stem growth, and the application of
gibberellin to intact plants can induce large
increases in plant height.
16. Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
• Gibberellins constitute a large family of
diterpene acids and are synthesized by a
branch of the terpenoid pathway.
• Pathway contains three stages.
• Gibberellins are tetracyclic diterpenoids made
up of four isoprenoid units. Terpenoids are
compounds made up of five-carbon (isoprene)
building blocks: joined head to tail.
17. • Stage 1: Production of terpenoid precursors and ent-kaurene in
plastids.
• The basic biological isoprene unit is isopentenyl diphosphate
(IPP).
• 2 IPP used in gibberellin biosynthesis in green tissues is
synthesized in plastids from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and
pyruvate.
• Once synthesized, the IPP isoprene units are added successively
to produce intermediates of 10 carbons (geranyl diphosphate),
15 carbons (farnesyl diphosphate), and 20 carbons
(geranylgeranyl diphosphate, GGPP).
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
18. • GGPP is a precursor of many terpenoid compounds,
including carotenoids and many essential oils, and it is only
after GGPP that the pathway becomes specific for
gibberellins.
• The cyclization reactions that convert GGPP to ent-kaurene
represent the first step that is specific for the gibberellins.
• The two enzymes that catalyze the reactions are localized
in the proplastids of meristematic shoot tissues, and they
are not present in mature chloroplasts.
• Thus, leaves lose their ability to synthesize gibberellins
from IPP once their chloroplasts mature.
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
19. • Stage 2: Oxidation reactions on the ER form
GA12 and GA53.
• In the second stage of gibberellin biosynthesis, a
methyl group on ent-kaurene is oxidized to a
carboxylic acid, followed by contraction of the B
ring from a six- to a five-carbon ring to give
GA12-aldehyde.
• GA12-aldehyde is then oxidized to GA12, the first
gibberellin in the pathway in all plants and thus
the precursor of all the other gibberellins.
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
20. • Many gibberellins in plants are also hydroxylated on
carbon 13.
• The hydroxylation of carbon 13 occurs next, forming
GA53 from GA12.
• All the enzymes involved are monooxygenases that
utilize cytochrome P450 in their reactions.
• These P450 monooxygenases are localized on the
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Kaurene is transported from the plastid to the
endoplasmic reticulum, and is oxidized in route to
kaurenoic acid by kaurene oxidase, which is associated
with the plastid envelope.
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
22. • Stage 3: Formation in the cytosol of all other gibberellins
from GA12 or GA53.
• All subsequent steps in the pathway are carried out by a
group of soluble dioxygenases in the cytosol.
• These enzymes require 2-oxoglutarate and molecular oxygen
as cosubstrates, and they use Fe2+ and ascorbate as
cofactors.
• Two basic chemical changes occur in most plants:
1. Hydroxylation at carbon 13 (on the endoplasmic reticulum)
or carbon 3, or both.
2. A successive oxidation at carbon 20 (CH2 → CH2OH →
CHO).
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
23. • The final step of this oxidation is the loss of carbon 20 as
CO2.
• When these reactions involve gibberellins initially
hydroxylated at C-13, the resulting gibberellin is GA20.
• GA20 is then converted to the biologically active form.
• GA1, by hydroxylation of carbon 3.
• Finally, GA1 is inactivated by its conversion to GA8 by a
• hydroxylation on carbon 2. This hydroxylation can also
remove GA20 from the biosynthetic pathway by converting
it to GA29.
Biosynthesis of Gibberellins
24.
25.
26. Cytokinin
• Cytokinins are chemically related to rubber,
carotenoid pigments, the plant hormones gibberellin
and abscisic acid, and some of the plant defense
compounds known as phytoalexins.
• All of these compounds are constructed, at least in
part, from isoprene units.
• The precursor(s) for the formation of these isoprene
structures are either mevalonic acid or pyruvate plus
3- phosphoglycerate, depending on which pathway is
involved.
27. Biosynthesis of Cytokinin
• The first committed step in cytokinin biosynthesis
is the addition of the isopentenyl side chain from
DMAPP to an adenosine moiety.
• The plant and bacterial IPT enzymes differ in the
adenosine substrate used; the plant enzyme
appears to utilize both ADP and ATP, and the
bacterial enzyme utilizes AMP.
• The products of these reactions (iPMP, iPDP, or
iPTP) are converted to zeatin by an unidentified
hydroxylase.
28. • The first committed step in cytokinin biosynthesis
is the transfer of the isopentenyl group of
dimphate (DMAPP) to an adenosine moiety.
• In both cases, DMAPP and AMP are converted to
isopentenyladenosine-5 -monophosphate (iPMP).′
• As with the free cytokinins, isopentenyl groups
are transferred to the adenine molecules from
DMAPP by an enzyme call tRNA-IPT.
Biosynthesis of Cytokinin
29. Cytokinin BiosynthesisCytokinin Biosynthesis
Biosynthetic pathway for cytokinin biosynthesis. The first committed step in cytokinin
biosynthesis is the addition of the isopentenyl side chain from DMAPP to an adenosine moiety.
The plant and bacterial IPT enzymes differ in the adenosine substrate used; the plant enzyme
appears to utilize both ADP and ATP, and the bacterial enzyme utilizes AMP. The products of these
reactions (iPMP, iPDP, or iPTP) are converted to zeatin by an unidentified hydroxylase. The various
phosphorylated forms can be interconverted and free trans-Zeatin can be formed from the
riboside by enzymes of general purine metabolism. trans-Zeatin can be metabolized in various
ways as shown, and these reactions are catalyzed by the indicated enzymes.
30.
31. Ethylene
• In 1901, Dimitry Neljubov observed that dark-
grown pea seedlings growing in the laboratory
exhibited symptoms that were later termed the
triple response: reduced stem elongation,
increased lateral growth (swelling), and
abnormal, horizontal growth.
• When the plants were allowed to grow in fresh
air, they regained their normal morphology and
rate of growth.
• The first indication that ethylene is a natural
product of plant tissues.
34. Abscisic acid
• It is now known that ethylene is the hormone
that triggers abscission and that ABA-induced
abscission of cotton fruits is due to ABA’s
ability to stimulate ethylene production.
• ABA biosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts
and other plastids.
35. Biosynthesis of Abscisic acid
• The pathway begins with isopentenyl
diphosphate (IPP), the biological isoprene unit,
and leads to the synthesis of the C40 xanthophyll
(i.e., oxygenated carotenoid) violaxanthin.
• Synthesis of violaxanthin is catalyzed by
zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP), the enzyme encoded
by the ABA1 locus of Arabidopsis.
• This discovery provided conclusive evidence that
ABA synthesis occurs via the “indirect” or
carotenoid pathway, rather than as a small
molecule.
36. • Violaxanthin is converted to the C40 compound
9 -cis-neoxanthin, which is then cleaved to form′
the C15 compound xanthoxal, previously called
xanthoxin, a neutral growth inhibitor that has
physiological properties similar to those of ABA.
• The cleavage is catalyzed by 9-cis-
epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), so named
because it can cleave both 9-cis-violaxanthin and
9 -cis-neoxanthin.′
Biosynthesis of Abscisic acid
37. • Synthesis of NCED is rapidly induced by water
stress, suggesting that the reaction it catalyzes is
a key regulatory step for ABA synthesis.
• The enzyme is localized on the thylakoids, where
the carotenoid substrate is located.
• Finally, xanthoxal is converted to ABA via
oxidative steps involving the intermediate(s)
ABA-aldehyde and/or possibly xanthoxic acid.
• This final step is catalyzed by a family of aldehyde
oxidases that all require a molybdenum cofactor.
Biosynthesis of Abscisic acid