Biology Lab Report

Biology Lab Report
Introduction The final project of the Spring 2018 Foundations of Biology lab focuses on
investigating variation in a population. As a class we study population variation to better understand
evolution and the mechanics behind it. What is the basis of evolution? The basis of evolution is the
differences in the alleles carried by the members of the population in their genome. The
differentiation in allele frequency accounts for a majority of the observable hertable differences in a
population. Specifically in this project we are anaylzing variation in the population of our
Foundations of Biology class. The main objective of this experiment is to investigate the genetic
variation in the Foundations of Biology class by looking at two specific ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The LCT gene on the 2nd chromosome encodes for the specific enzyme lactase. Lactase can digest
lactose the major sugar in milk. Individuals who do not have the enzyme lactase are unable to digest
lactose and the sugar is sent directly to the colon for fermentation. A majority of the world
population lose their ability to produce lactase. This phenomenon is known as adult–type
hypolactasia. This phenomena is the ancestral trait of LCT. Lactose tolerance stemmed from a
polymorphism of a C –> T base pair change on the LCT locus. Lactose tolerance is dominant to
adukt–type hypolactasia. There is a high T frequency in people of european descent because of
positive selection and the invention of dairy farming.The TAS2R38 gene on the 7th chromosome
translates the protein that allows people to taste the bitterness of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). PTC is
a synthetic chemical created by Arthur Fox in 1930. Fox did not notice the bitter taste but his
collegue could taste the bitterness. The ability to taste PTC is one of the most studied human traits
around. There are only two common types of alleles for PTC tasting in humans but at least five other
rare alleles that affect the phenotype. The taster allele is the PAV allele and the nontaster allele is the
AVI allele. (Leicht and McAllister,
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Genotype Lab
To determine the genotype of the members in my group and the class with regards to the TAS2R38
and LCT genes, first, DNA was extracted from epithelial cells to be used for PCR to amplify the
DNA of the targeted loci. Then, restriction enzyme digestion was performed to cut the DNA into
fragments in order to perform Restriction Length Polymorphism Analysis to decipher the different
lengths. Differing lengths of the DNA accounts for different alleles on that specific gene, therefore
determining heterozygosity and homozygosity of the genotype.
LCT Gene. The LCT gene contains the enzyme lactase which digests lactose into glucose and
galactose. The possible genotypes include CC, CT, and TT, where C is the dominant allele for
lactose tolerance and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According the the results presented above, neither the LCT or the TAS2R38 loci are in Hardy–
Weinberg equilibrium, therefore supporting our initial hypothesis that neither loci would be in
equilibrium. For the LCT gene, the heterozygous genotype, CT, was underrepresented based on the
expected outcome of 97 individuals compared to the actual observed 79 individuals. Similarly, the
heterozygous genotype, Tt, for the TAS2R38 gene was underrepresented based on the expected
outcome of 91 individuals compared to the actual observed 72 individuals. For the population to not
be in equilibrium, it is likely the population violates the five conditions required for the Hardy–
Weinberg Principle. The five conditions include, no mutation, random mating, infinite population
size, no gene flow, and no selection. Of the five, non–random mating and gene flow could affect the
genotype frequencies in the short–term, for example, the length of the experiment. The population
that was tested consists of only one generation, therefore the class is just a mixture of genotypes
rather than a mating population that is producing gametes, therefore the non–random mating
assumption is violated. There was no record of individuals migrating into or out of the class,
therefore gene flow is not a

Forensic Science
Discuss the applications of each of following in biology today and include three examples of each
with a brief description. (1) DNA in forensic science (2) Population evolution and microbial life (3)
Biological diversity evolution (4) Plant and animal development (5) Population growth, and (6)
Biomes and Ecosystems. 1. Forensic science, today according to Different Types of DNA, (n.d.),
can be used to determine the elements of biological evidence to solve crimes and bring closure to
other legal battle. Different Types of DNA further added, because human DNA is incomparable, and
DNA testing can verify individuals bringing certainty to unanswered questions, forensic science was
able to influences different areas of society. With this type of certainty, forensic science is use by
law makers to provide various types of DNA outlined view, such as: DNA profiling, prenatal
paternity, and paternity testing, (Different Types of DNA). DNA profiling is accomplished through
the analysis of one's DNA from the swabbing of the inner portion of their mouth. Prenatal paternity
test, this can be achieved through swabbing of DNA from the mother and father for buccal swab.
And lastly, paternity testing, a process that can be conducted on pregnant women through Chorionic
Villus Sampling to resolved growth ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because eukaryote is not perceptible to the naked eye, we tend to neglect them. As a result of this,
eukaryote help to furnish the growth of oxygen in the atmosphere, and take care of the decay of
organic materials and nutrient cycling, and 3. Polyphyletic also known as algal evolve through
separate endosymbiotic occurrence. As a result, this population is identified on the principle of a
similar level of structure, and not on evolutionary origins (Plant and Animal

The Origin Of Species: A Genetic Analysis
Introduction: The human genome has evolved over millions of years through the process of natural
selection (Leicht 157). The hypothesis of natural selection was first proposed in The Origin of
Species, written by Charles Darwin in 1859 (157). It was written that traits are heritable, and that if
a individual carries a trait that gives a higher chance of survival, it will successfully pass the trait
onto more offspring than an individual lacking in a successful trait (157). On this basis, we set off to
examine genetic variation within the student body of the Foundations of Biology class. Analysis of
genetic variation among human populations of today provide insights into past migrations and
founder events (161). By examining genotype frequencies and different alleles of different loci, we
can learn about the evolutionary forces and events of human history that have produced the current
trait distributions that we see today. The fact that we can study these alleles and their frequencies
gives us insight into how humans evolved into what we are today. Many important findings can be
found by studying these alleles, such as whether the allele has been a long term balancing selection
at a locus, or whether it may be a relatively new allele within a specific population of humans that
may not have migrated into other populations yet. To learn more about the genetic variation within
out class, we chose two loci to examine: the TAS2R38 gene located on chromosome 7 and the PV92
Alu

Hardy Weinberg Questions
Hardy–Weinberg Principle Name: _______________________________ Period: ____
Show all work and box your answer for each of the following questions! 1. In a population at
genetic equilibrium, the frequency of allele A is 0.5. a. What is the frequency of the homozygous
dominant genotype (AA)? b. What is the frequency of the heterozygous genotype (Aa)?
2. If 16% of the individuals in a population at genetic equilibrium are recessive (aa). a. What is the
frequency of the recessive allele in the population? b. What is the frequency of the dominant allele?
3. If the genotype frequencies in a population at genetic equilibrium are 0.36 TT, 0.48 Tt, and 0.16
tt, what ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the question above, what is the frequency of the dominant allele in the US population? c. For the
question above, approximately what proportion of the population would be expected to be carriers
of the PKU allele?
Summary Question:
Restate each of the Hardy–Weinberg conditions. Under each, elaborate by explaining each in greater
detail. Define the term and explain what each is and how it is important. Also explain how each may
be violated in nature and how often you think that the condition may be violated. An example for the
first condition is given below.
1. No Mutations: Mutations refer to a changes in the DNA code. Mutations occur regularly, are the
source of variation of traits in a species, and are called the raw material upon which natural selection
acts and can lead to evolutionary change in phenotype. Mutations of the DNA mean that the
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and/or Cytosine changes. Changes can be deletions, substitutions, or
inversions. Most mutations would be disadvantageous, but can also be advantageous. Variation of
phenotype in a population allows a species to survive in a changing environment.
2. No Migration:
3.
4.

How Did Thomas Malthus Inspire Charles Darwin 's Theory Of...
Introduction to Biological Anthropology Exam 1 Name: Sean Cook Short Answer: Answer each
question in a few sentences, as specifically as possible. Remember to use appropriate terminology
and answer all parts of the question. (5pts each) 1. How did Thomas Malthus inspire Charles
Darwin's theory of natural selection? Define natural selection. Thomas Malthus stated that the
human population would eventually decrease significantly. His reasoning was that there would be a
scarcity of food and other vital resources, leaving only the fittest of the species to survive. These
"fittest" of the species would then pass on their traits to their offspring. Darwin used this is a firm
foundation for his natural selection theory. Natural selection is the idea that the organisms that are
the best suited for the environments they live in, are able to survive and pass on their genetic traits
with huge success to the next generations of said organism. 2. What's the difference between a stem
cell and a differentiated cell? Give an example. Why are stem cells important in science? The
difference between stem cells and a differentiated cell is the fact that stem cells have the ability to
become any kind of cell once they are more developed. Differentiated cells already have a purpose
set for them and will fulfill that one purpose once they have developed and matured fully. Stem cells
are basically cells that haven't differentiated yet. Stem cells are important to science because of their

The Hardy Weinberg Principle, No Natural Selection
Design
Research Question:
If all five conditions mentioned within the Hardy–Weinberg Principle are met (random mating, large
populations, no mutations, no migration, no natural selection), will the population remain in genetic
equilibrium?
Background Information:
The Hardy–Weinberg Principle or the Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Model states that "allele and
genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the
absence of other evolutionary influences" (Version, T.). In order for genetic equilibrium to be
maintained, five conditions must be met:
– Random Mating: all individuals within a population must have an equal opportunity to pass on
their alleles
– Large Populations: random changes in allele ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
– p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 ; where 'p2' represents the homozygous dominant genotype, '2pq' represents the
heterozygous genotype, and 'q2' represents the homozygous recessive genotype
This equation is used to calculate the genotype frequency, so 1 = 100% of the population.
Hypothesis:
In a large, randomly mating population where mutations, migration, and natural selection are no
longer viable, the allele and genotypic frequencies will remain at equilibrium. If any of these
conditions are changed, then the allele and genotype frequencies will be unable to maintain genetic
equilibrium.
Variables:
Independent Variable(s) – Alleles (only 2 options)
Dependent Variable(s) – Allele Frequency, Genotype Frequency
Controlled Variable(s) – The control group is the first group of data taken with the cheerios where
there is random mating, large population (100 alleles), no mutations, no migration, and no natural
selection.
Control of Variables:
In this experiment, in order to conform to the requirements of the Hardy–Weinberg Principle, it is
necessary to control five differing factors:
1. Random Mating
2. Large Populations
3. Absence of Mutations
4. Absence of Migration
5. Absence of Natural Selection

In order to control all of these factors throughout the experiment, one must randomly select the
alleles (cheerios), must have a larger population size

The Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium Equation
The main purpose of this lab was to utilize the infamous Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium equation to
predict the evolutionary modifications a certain species (Drosophila melanogaster) displayed
throughout different generations. For this experiment to be carried out, Drosophila melanogaster,
also known as fruit flies, were used to visually represent evolutionary conceptions such as Hardy–
Weinberg equilibrium equation. At the beginning of the experiment, the parent generation was
observed first. Throughout the course of seven weeks, the vial was analyzed for certain changes
between the two populations of Drosophila melanogaster; wild type and ebony. Although the
genotypes could not be figured out, the flies were evaluated and observed based on ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Hardy Weinberg equation is a good way of providing a null–hypothesis which can later be
paralleled to direct observations of the population, making it very useful for studying populations
and evolution (University of South Florida, 2016). Drosophila melanogaster is a good model
organism for studying evolution because the generation time for these flies is a mere two weeks
(University of South Florida, 2016). It is also small, easily observed, produces many offspring, and
is a well–studied species (University of South Florida, 2016). Body color is an important trait to
study in these flies because it can help us visually see the results of the experiment; whether the flies
evolved or not. There have been numerous studies done on Drosophila melanogaster and one such
study was by Kalmus in 1935. This study was concerned with the clock system that controlled the
time at which Drosophila adults emerged from puparia (Kalmus 1935). J.M. Rendel also did a study
on Drosophila. His focus was the differences in mating behavior that was displayed between most
species of Drosophila (Rendel 1951). For this experiment, my hypothesis was that the population
was not going to remain in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium over the course of three generations. This
is because in Rendel's literature, he states that disturbances of mating can appear due to gene
changes which can give rise to drastic fitness reductions of the animals that have been

How Did Charles Darwin Contribute To Science
–It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but the one most
responsive to change, this was said by Charles Darwin, a naturalist who developed the theory of
evolution to explain biological change. Almost all things are somehow affected or reshaped entirely
by scientific advances. Science plays a huge role in everyone and every things life. There are many
scientist who have discovered, helped advance, or even invented incredible things. And in the top
100 influential scientist sits Charles Darwin. Just like any other scientist, his studies open doors to
many more. His research and visions of common ancestry revolutionized studies in comparative
anatomy, embryology, and taxonomy, and has brought together the basic rule of all biology. But
Darwin's innovative idea of the process of evolution was received cautiously and remains in the
minds of many scientist today. His idea made a huge leap, but there was a missing puzzle piece that
was found by scientist Gregor Mendel who figured out that heredity depends on genes. So without
Darwin's grand theory many discoveries enabled by the application of evolutionary tools would
have not been made. Darwin's ideas have been enhanced and modified as new knowledge and
technologies have become ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Even though this branch took awhile to fully developed most of it was based off of Darwinian
concepts. Another side of philosophy of biology deals with the role of laws. In physical sciences
laws are the bases of theories like the law of motion lead to the theory of gravity. But in
evolutionary biology theories are widely based on concepts like female choice, dominance and
succession, and selection. Over the past century a pronounced change in the methodology in biology
took place. Darwin did not directly cause this change but he did strengthened by his developments
in evolutionary biology (Mayr).

Drosophila Lab Abstract
Introduction The study of population genetics is simply how the genes or alleles within a population
may vary or change. The purpose of population genetics is being able to predict the genes that are
expressed in future generations and understanding why that is. An allele is an alternate form of a
gene, so blonde hair and black hair are both alleles but hair color is a gene. In this particular
experiment the alleles being focused on are the body colors of the Drosophila melanogaster, which
is the common fruit fly. The two different body color alleles are the wild type, tan body color, and
the ebony type, black body color. Drosophila melanogaster was chosen for the experiment as it is the
archetype for population genetics. Drosophila is a model organism for population genetics just as the
house mouse has become a model organism (Powell, 1997). The benefits of using Drosophila in this
experiment is that it has a short life cycle along with a fast ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
To test to see if evolution is taking place the Hardy–Weinberg Principle will be used. This equation
allows us to predict future allele frequencies based on the current alleles frequencies if no evolution
were taking place. This means if the observed frequencies differ from the expected frequencies some
form of evolution must have taken place. The Hardy–Weinberg Principle has many conditions that
must be met to ensure no evolution is taking place, if the observed and expected results do not
match then one of those conditions was not met. Other deviations from Hardy–Weinberg may result
from inbreeding, population stratification and sexual selection (Balding, 2006). This leads to the
hypothesis in that due to a small initial population size of 20 flies not all of the conditions for
Hardy–Weinberg will be met resulting in evolution taking

Population Genetics Lab
The Effect of Natural Selection, Heterozygote Advantage, and Genetic Drift on the Allele
Frequencies Over Time
Purpose: The purpose of the Population Genetics Lab was to use the Hardy Weinberg theory of
genetic equilibrium and examine the relationship between evolution and allele frequencies.
Additionally this lab allowed us to examine how microevolution factors such as natural selection,
heterozygote advantage, and genetic drift affected the genotype and allele frequencies. Finally the
population genetics lab permitted us to become masters of finding allele frequencies and
establishing a better knowledge on evolution in populations and how we can calculate if that
occurred using the Hardy–Weinberg equations. This experiment is relevant because ... Show more
Results: Initial Allele Frequencies: p = 0.5, q = 0.5 Allele Frequencies of F5 Genotype of Case I
(Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium): q^2=15/69=.217 q= √(.217)= .466 p=1– .466= .534 Allele
Frequencies of F5 Genotype of Case II (Selection): p=105/138= .761 q=1– .761= .239
Allele Frequencies of F5 Genotype of Case III (Heterozygote Advantage): p=95/138= .688 q=1–
.688= .312 Allele Frequencies of F10 Genotype of Case III (Heterozygote Advantage): p=99/138=
.717 q=1– .717= .283 Allele Frequencies of F5 Genotype of Case IV (Genetic Drift) – Alpha:
q^2=8/33= .242 q= √(.242)= .492 p=1– .492= .508 Allele Frequencies of F5 Genotype of Case IV
(Genetic Drift) – Beta: q^2=7/22= .318 q= √(.318)=

Biology 1A Study Guide [SJSU] Essay
Exam 1 Study guide
Chapter 1: Biology and Tree of Life
What are the five fundamental characteristics of all living organisms?
– Energy – all organisms acquire and use energy
– Cells – made up of membrane–bound cells
– Information – process heredity info. encoded in genes as well as info. from environment –
Replication – all are capable of reproduction
– Evolution – populations of organisms are continuing to evolve
What is the cell theory?
– All organisms are made of cells (pattern), and
– All cells come from pre–existing cells (process)
What are the three major groups of organisms?
– Eukaryotes – Eukarya
– Prokaryotes – Bacteria/Archaea
What is a phylogenic tree?
–A phylogenetic tree reflects ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Coelomates have an enclosed body cavity, which means advance muscle structure, enhanced
locomotor capabilities, and more structural integrity.
* Fluid – filled cavity allowed for the evolution of a hydrostatic skeleton for movement (evolved out
of animals having a coelom)
What is the difference between protostomes and deuterostomes?
Protostomes (arthropods, mollusks, and worms): Pore becomes mouth Deuterostomes (chordates
and echinoderms): Pore becomes anus
What are the different feeding types?
Suspension feeder – "filter feeder": capture food by filtering out particles suspended in air or water
(ex. baleen whale and krill shrimp)

Deposit feeder – eat their way through substrate (ex. worms)
Fluid feeders – suck or mop up liquids like nectar, blood, plant sap, etc (ex. hummingbirds)
Mass feeders – take chunks of food into their mouths (ex. humans)
Chapter 5: Evolution by Natural Selection
What is the evolutionary theory? According to evolutionary theory, species: 1. Change through time
2. Are related by common ancestry
What are vestigial traits? Incompletely developed/ non–functioning structure
What is structural homology? Adult morphology [same bones, different sizes and places]
What is genetic homology? DNA sequences
What is developmental homology? Embryos
What are the four steps of Natural selection?
1. Variation

The Cause Of Genetic Information Being Transferred By A...
Humans have been involved with genetics even before the idea of genetics existed. In the 1800s, a
monk by the name of Mendel used selection in plants and crossed them to study how traits are
passed down from parents to filial generations. Ever since then, genetics have grown over time and
it has lead to much curiosity among scientists, which have then conducted their experiments to
overcome their curiosity. That has lead to many innovations and new findings.
In the early 1920s, Fredrick Griffith conducted an experiment that proposed that bacteria are the
cause of genetic information being transferred by a process called transformation. His further
researches conducted lead him to the finding that DNA was the genetic material that passed
information (Klug et al., 2012). Avery, Mccarty and Macleod using Griffith's findings confirmed that
DNA was the material that was passed down from parents to offspring's in the form of genes. Genes
are composed of alleles that pass down traits from generation to generation.
Once alleles are inherited in a population, traits are expressed. Thus this leads to the idea of
population genetics, which is very crucial to understanding genetics. Population genetics studies the
frequency of alleles that change within a population, which influences evolution. Mathematic
principles are used to population geneticists, which predict any trends that may occur in a given
population. The hardy Weinberg principle is one of these principles.
Hardy

Wild Cat Servals Research Paper
The starting organism for this project is the serval, which is a type of wild cat. In this story, a group
of servals is brought to this cold island by researchers. Because these servals were randomly chosen
from a population and were taken to a new place, this is said to be the Founder Effect. After
studying the servals, the researchers left them on the island and departed. The servals reproduce and
by gradualism, the population of servals starts to change. The island is very, very cold and dry. The
temperatures here reaches up to 20 degrees Fahrenheit in the day and go down to about –19 degrees
at night. There is some vegetation here, consisting of frozen tundra and snow covered plains.
Changes:
After one million years of living on this island, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This means that these two populations are not able mate with each other because of differences in
their mating rituals. The servals that have long tails, longitudinal stripes on their backs, and short,
sharp teeth include their urine in their mating process, whereas the other population of servals use
scratching of trees to find a mate. Because of these differences the two populations of servals do not
recognize each others message to mate, so they do not produce offspring together. Instead the
servals on one side of the island mate with each other, and the servals on the other side of the island
mate among

Evolution Of A Evolutionary Theory
Evolution is descent with modification, a phrase Darwin used in proposing the at Earth's many
species are descendants of ancestral species that were different The power of evolution as a unifying
theory is its ability to explain and connect a vast array of observations about the living world.
Aristotle believed that life forms could be arranged on a scale of increasing complexity. Each form
of life, perfect and permanent, had its allotted space. Darwin argued that classification should be
based on evolutionary relationships Darwin used fossils, the remains or traces of organisms from the
past, to study and observe change over time. Paleontology is the study of these fossils Darwin said
that if geologic change results from slow, continuous actions rather than from sudden events, then
the Earth must be much older than what was previously thought. Lamarck used two main principles
already accepted to prove his evolutionary theory. The first was use and disuse, the idea that parts of
the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger. The other was inheritance of acquired
characteristics, which stated that an organism could pass these modifications to its offspring.
Lamarck's idea that organisms have an innate drive to become more complex was rejected by
Darwin. Darwin reasoned that over a long time, descent with modification eventually led to the rich
diversity we see today. Closely related species that are very similar due to their common ancestor,
until they

Evolution And Natural Selection: What Happens When Living...
"It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one
that is the most adaptable to change." – Charles Darwin (5). The most necessary ability an organism
can have to survive on the always changing Earth is the ability to adapt; without the ability to adapt
an organism would die out. The gradual process by which living organisms change over time is
known as evolution. A change in a population's hereditary make–up leads to evolution through
natural selection, random processes, and is supported by disciplines including mathematics. "I have
called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural
Selection." – Charles Darwin (5). Natural selection is the process by which organisms that possess
favorable traits tend to survive and produce more offspring, passing down the favorable traits.
Evolution and natural selection change the allele (a variant of a gene) frequencies in a population,
and the organisms with the most favorable traits survive to reproduce. Over time the organisms
become better adapted for the changing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mathematics is one of them, an illustration of this is the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium equation
model. This equation states that allele frequencies will remain constant without evolutionary
influences. A phylogenetic tree is another model. It is also known as an evolutionary tree; it shows
the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms. Scientists use theses trees to make
predictions about fossils, and learn about the diversity, change, and order of evolution. Phylogenetic
trees offer a great deal of information on a group's evolutionary history. A cladogram is one more, it
is a branching diagram depicting relations among organisms. They show the order in which
characteristics arise. All of these are disciplines and models supporting biological

Rights Of Man Thomas Paine Analysis
Since its foundation, America has been illustrated by its elaborate composition of diverse cultures,
ethnicities, and nationalities. This "melting pot" analogy attempts to illustrate the equal
representation of all cultures within the nation's boundaries. In the "Rights of Man", however,
Thomas Paine argues the "cordial unison" of all citizens in America contributes to a single culture.
As it was the Founding Fathers' intention, and Paine's expression alike, despite the diversity of its
demographic, America performs in harmony by "constructing government on the principles of
society and the rights of man". Instead of expressing individuality, Paine believed all uniformities
brought about the single American identity. In cooking with garlic, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Finches scattered throughout the islands each showed unique feeding abilities based on their beak
shapes. Long–beaked finches used their beaks to dig for food, while dense, short–beaked finches a
stone's throw away utilized their beaks in cracking seeds and nutshells. Now, if the variations
between these finches did not occur from the common ancestral finch, would every bird be expected
to survive based merely on the merit of having a "traditional" beak? Similarly, do dog's need to lift a
hind leg up when they pee because it's their "traditional" stereotype, even though it provides
absolutely no benefit in the efficiency of excreting urine; if anything, the sole benefit of being
thrown off center of balance? Or, because it's traditional, and my great–great–grandparents were, do
I need to be heterosexual to conform in today's society? Do I even need to identify myself in today's
society? Change is important in the survival, health, and cooperation among individuals. What Paine
failed to recognize is the importance of disagreement being coterminal with agreement– under any
circumstances. Disagreement allows ideas to be disputed, and changes to be

Mutations In Research Paper
1. Mutation is a driving force for the evolution of a species. Describe the 3 main mutations that can
occur in a gene, and the impact those mutations will have on protein structure/function. (5 pts)
Mutations at the level of DNA are: base substitutions, base insertions, and base deletions. The
missense can be caused by base substitutions and nonsense mutations in the protein which can lead
to structure alterations and essentially loss of function. Also, the base substitutions can cause silent
mutations where the DNA base is changed, but it has no effect on the protein coding sequence. Base
insertions and deletions cause frameshift mutations which essentially change the amino acid coding
sequence downstream of the mutation. This will affect ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Other genes may be responsible for differences within other populations and between very different
populations such as the short–statured Biaka Pygmies and tall–statured Dinka of equatorial Africa.
The combination of so many genes helps to explain why stature is not a Mendelian trait with only
two or three distinct forms
b. If the phenotypic variation is 30, what is the variation due to additive alleles? (2 pts)
30
12. According to a recent study, 1 out of 50,000 people will be diagnosed with cystic fibrosis. Cystic
fibrosis can be caused by a mutant form of the CFTR gene (dominant gene symbol is F and mutant
is f).
The percentage of population which its trait is the recessive bb = (12/100,000) X 100= 0.012%.
If we applied Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
That means the allelic frequency of the cancerous allele is equal to the square root of 0.012 which is
= 0.1095
a. Using the rate of incidence above, what is the frequency of carriers of the cystic fibrosis allele for
CFTR in the US? (3 pts)
We know that tumor suppressor genes must be homozygous recessive, therefore the genotype for
BRCA1 will be bb. If p= f(B) and q=f(b), then solve as follows: bb=q2= 12/100,000= 0.00012 q=
√0.00012=

Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
Evolution is the concept published by Charles Darwin that organisms change over time. Evolution
transpires by natural selection, which is the process where an organism with beneficial traits, or
fitness, produces more offspring than organisms with non–beneficial traits. Over time, this creates
organisms that are more adapted to survive for whatever place they are living in, because nature
passes on the variations of organisms that are most useful, and with the greatest chance of surviving.
In order for evolution to occur, the traits must be heritable, there must be a difference in fitness
within the population, there must be limited resources, which leads to competition, and there must
be variation.
Darwin knew the facts that must be true in order for evolution to occur and he had much evidence
backing up his theory, but he did not have a complete understanding of the pathways of evolution
because the laws of genetics put forward by Gregor Mendel were not known to him. It wasn't until
the early 1900s when Mendel's work was published, that scientists understood the full process of
evolution. From Mendel's experimentation, we are now taught that variations of traits are heritable,
and the variations are caused by alleles. Microevolution is evolution that occurs because of the
constant change in alleles over time. Macroevolution occurs over geologic time above the level of
the species, which is shown by fossil records, (CK–12 275). It is caused by microevolution
happening over

Charles Darwin 's ' The ' Hms Beagle ' And His Exploration...
Today was the day. Today was the day I would finally get all my answers on the theory of evolution,
from the master himself, or should I say "father". As I opened the door, a mysterious old figure
stood with a tortoise by his side: it was Charles Darwin. Quickly and eagerly he went into the dining
room and eagerly cried, "Guys! I am very glad to see you all! I need to tell you all everything,
everything that I had found out about!" Before my family had fully sat on their seats, he shared
fascinating stories about his adventures and voyages. He began explaining his tails on the famous
"HMS Beagle" and his exploration of the Galapagos Islands. On his voyage on the "Beagle" he was
instructed to chart stretches of coastlines of South America, but as he explained that he wasn't any
Picasso, his sketches ended up poorly drawn. As we all know, Darwin has never been the type to
enforce rules, and plus charting coastlines is just the most boring job a person can do. As well as
charting, he shared his strange fascination on his observations of how the characteristics of plants
and animals suits only specific environments in South America. He explained how plants and
animals in similar geographic and climate zones have a similar resemblance. With great enthusiasm,
Charles addressed my half brother and wife saying, "Tom Bradey, 3 time MVP and 4 time super
bowl winner, oh and the beautiful Vanessa Hudgens– Ramolia!" You must see how my observations
and these fossils have similar

Allele and Dd
Name: Date: 03.05.13
Student Exploration: Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
Vocabulary: allele, genotype, Hardy–Weinberg equation, Hardy–Weinberg principle, heterozygous,
homozygous, Punnett square
Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo.)
Suppose the feather color of a bird is controlled by two alleles, D and d. The D allele results in dark
feathers, while the d allele results in lighter feathers.
1. Suppose two Dd birds mate. What percentages of DD, Dd, and dd offspring would you predict?
Use the Punnett square at right to help determine your answer.
DD ___25___ Dd _____50___ dd _____25_____
2. In this situation, what ratio of heterozygous (Dd) to homozygous (DD and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Interpret: Select the GENOTYPE GRAPH tab. What does this graph show? For Dd genotypes, it's
was the lowest but then it started going up. All of those results, Dd genotype have the highest
average.
(Activity A continued on next page)
Activity A (continued from previous page)
6. Gather data: On the DESCRIPTION tab, click Reset. Set DD and dd to any values you like. Fill
in the initial values in the table below, and then run the Gizmo for five generations. Record the allele
and genotype percentages for each generation in the table below.
| |Initial values |Generation |
| | |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |
|% D alleles |74.0 |73.6 |74.3 |73.9 |75.5 |75.3 |
|% d alleles |26.0 |26.4 |25.7 |26.1 |24.5 |24.7 |
|% of DD genotype |68.0 |52.4 |55.6 |53.0 |58.0 |57.6 |

|% of Dd genotype |12.0 |42.4 |37.4 |41.8 |35.0 |35.4 |
|% of dd genotype |20.0 |5.2 |70. |5.2

What Is Charles Darwin's Explanation Of Evolution?
Charles Darwin was the first person to appreciate clearly that evolution depends on the existence of
heritable variability within a species. Darwin's contributions to evolutionary biology are very well
known. But his contributions to genetics aren't. His main contribution was the collection of a
massive amount of genetic data. And also an attempt to provide a framework for its interpretations.
Once he has decided that species originated by modifications, Darwin has quickly realized that the
need to find a mechanism for accomplishing the changes has to be involved.
Darwin's explanation of evolution is a natural selection. It has the basis of all of biology. It's applied
to sub–disciplines of medicine, agriculture, and also biotechnology. No other biologist in the history
of other species ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A substantial part of the variation in phenotypes in a population is caused by the differences between
their genotypes. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this
genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative
to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation –
when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.
Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population.
Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But
with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural
selection implausible. The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is
maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles (variations in a
gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic

Alu Sequence Lab Report
Kearra Barretto
Dr. Rupa Tuan
BIO–1103–L–04: General Biology II Lab
25 April 2018
The Presence of the Alu Sequence Using PCR
Introduction
For millions of years, repetitive DNA sequences such as the "Alu sequence" have been randomly
inserted in the human genome. In this experiment, I will study whether or not the repetitive element
such as the "Alu sequence" is present in the PV92 region of chromosome 16 of my DNA. I will then
gather the data from my Biology Lab Class and compare it with those of the United States. To
perform this experiment, the method of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) will be used to amplify
the DNA. The purpose of using PCR is to create enough mass in order for it to run on the agarose
gel electrophoresis. Performing this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After it was expelled back into the cup, 1 ml of the saline rise was transferred into a micro test tube
in order for it to be spun in a balanced centrifuge. The micro test tube that contained the 1 ml of
saline rise was inside of the centrifuge for 2 minutes, resulting in cells at the bottom of the tube.
Since all of the cells were present at the bottom of the tube, the saline was poured off and the tube
was vortexed to be sure that there were no clumps of cells. Afterward, the InstaGene Master Mix
(which removes cofactor to inhibit DNA cutting enzymes) was vortexed with the saline rise in order
to fully mix the contents of the tube (Bio–Rad Laboratories, Chromosome 16: PV92 PCR). The tube
was then incubated at 56 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes to inactivate DNAses and put on a second
heat block at 100 degrees Celsius for 5 minutes to disrupt cell membranes. The tubes were put into a
centrifuge then cooled down in a 4 degrees' Celsius fridge.
PCR
20 ul of DNA was added to 20ul of Master Mix. The Master Mix contained primers, dNTPs, Mg2+,
Taq DNA polymerase, and yellow dye. Both the DNA and Master Mix were mixed with the
micropipette. The DNA was then put into the thermal cycler containing 40 cycles of PCR
amplification, amounting to 3.5 hours of amplification.
Gel

Migration And Its Effects On Population
Abstract:
Migration such as immigration or emigration is the transfer of alleles, which are responsible for
genetic variations, from the gene pool of one population to another. Therefore, it may change allele
frequencies or range due to the reproduction of the immigrated individuals. This study was
performed to see how migration modifies the effects of frequent disasters on allele frequencies in
moth populations. Migration would counteract the effects of natural disasters that increase genetic
drift by introducing new alleles into the gene pool; this allows for new combinations and increases
variability within populations. Keeping all other factors constant, PopGen was used to maneuver
Hardy–Weinberg's equilibrium parameters where different levels of migration decreases the harm
caused by frequent and occasional disaster rates in a set population. As the migratory rate increases,
the relative frequencies of each allele–"A"& "a" remained closed to 0.5, respectively, indicating that
by increasing variability, migration decreases the impacts of disaster rates on a population.
Introduction:
Population genetics is the study of alleles' frequency changes and distributions in response to the
five factors that drive evolution– natural selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift, within
populations (McDonald and Linde, 2002). It focuses on interbreeding populations' overall gene
pool, and whether the present alleles changes over time. Alleles are gene variants at a loci in a

Drosophila Fruit Fly Experiment
Drosophila Project Report Sepia (eyes) x wildtype (WT) German Lagunas–Robles Marie Villalobos
Jon Sacro December 4, 2014 I. Introduction The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) is the model
organism when it comes to studying genetics; for over 100 years, it has been used as one of the few
model organisms in the scientific community (Twyman, 2002). The reason behind this and why
scientists continue to choose to study Drosophila is because of the amount of scientists that have
done so and it is well documented on how to treat a fly in a laboratory setting (Twyman, 2002).
They are also small and easy to feed. This means that it would be easy to work with a large amount
of them without being concerned about taking up too much space, food, or ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Methods 1. Two clean vials were obtained and labeled "P – Generation: Sepia x WT." Fly food
mixture was placed inside the vial and water was added to it until it took on a dark blue color. If too
much water was added, this step was redone as the food could possibly drown the flies inside. 2. Six
Sepias (3 males, 3 females) were added to both vials. Six Wildtypes (3 males, 3 females) were added
to both vials. This was done by transferring them while they were FlyNapped. They were topped
immediately after with the vial being placed on its side so the flies would not drown in their food
when they woke up. These vials contained the parental generation. 3. After a week, the flies that
resulted from P – generation, F1, were FlyNapped and taken out by placing them on index cards.
Paintbrushes were used to transfer them onto the index cards. They were sorted into the following
categories – male Sepia, female Sepia, male Wildtype, female Wild Type – and counted, this was F1.
Six Sepias (3 males, 3 females) and six Wildtypes (3 males, 3 females) were then added to two
separate vials. The vials were placed on their sides to avoid any flies drowning. The flies remaining
were disposed of properly (fly

Dotus Variation Lab Report
Introduction
For the past few weeks in Biology 107, the class has been touching on the subject of evolution and
how it is brought about through various processes. Evolution is a concept that has been researched
extensively for over a century now and continues to bring interesting findings day after day.
According to the Hardy–Weinberg law (a principle that contributes to the understanding of
evolution) first introduced by Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg states that there are five
possible agents of evolutionary change, including: natural selection, genetic drift, mutations, gene
flow, and nonrandom mating. Nonetheless, the mechanism of interest for this particular lab is
natural selection. According to Mader, "Natural Selection is the mechanism, ... Show more content
Although this is only one case the results all seem to give a reasonable explanation to how this
simulation can be applied in natural environments. It is logical to assume that the phenotypes
(colors) that stand out in the environment (map) will most likely be the ones selected (eaten) by
predators. For example, in this experiment the phenotypes subjected to positive selection pressure
for the most part were dark colored dots or dots that were better blended into the environment, more
specifically the green and clear colors who most likely blended with the grasses or trees. The
phenotypes that were subjected to negative selection pressure were much of the bright colored dots
that stood out in the environment, more specifically the hot pink, orange, and yellow colors.
Furthermore, there are many similar documented cases and scenarios that go to show that these
types of results are likely in the wild. One example is that of the tadpole fish who alter their body
symmetry (the way they look) in response to predators. According to Herzog, Rabus, Ribeiro and
Laforsch (coauthors of "Inducible Defenses with a 'Twist': Daphnia barbata Abandons Bilateral
Symmytry in Response to an Ancient Predator,") the body torsion likely contributes to the increased
survival rate of Triops– induced D.barbata." These two examples, although not even a fraction of
experiments performed, show strong evidence of the effects

The Distribution of Alu Genotypes
The Distribution of Alu Genotypes in a Group of Level 4 Students The Distribution of Alu
Genotypes Introduction DNA is mostly found in the nucleus of nearly every cell in the human body,
it contains the biological instructions that make us unique. Located on the genome at different
locations are short, identifiable sequences known as Alu insertion polymorphisms. The application
of Alu elements has recently become used in forensic identification and paternity testing. Alu
elements are found in nearly one million copies per haploid gene which approximately 5 – 10% of
the human genome. The Alu elements can be found bordering genes or gathered with other
interspersed repeated sequences (Primrose 1998). Alu elements are repeated ... Show more content
2 (+ +) 14 (+ –) 15 (– –) TPA–25 n = 31 Total alleles = 62 9 (+ +) 18 + alleles 11 (+ –) 11 + alleles
11 – alleles 11 (– –) 22 – alleles Frequency of + allele = 29 62 Frequency of + allele = 0.47
Frequency of – allele = Total number of + alleles Total alleles Frequency of – allele = 33 62
Frequency of – allele = 0.53 The Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium equation is as follows, with the
fraction of + alleles denoted by p and the fraction of – alleles denoted by q. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 0.472
+ 2(0.47)(0.53) + 0.532 = 1 0.2209 + 0.4982 + 0.2809 = 1 Expected number of individuals with (+
+) genotype = p2N = 0.2209 X 31 = 6.8479 Expected number of individuals with (+ –) genotype =
2pq = 0.4982 X 31 = 15.4442 Expected number of individuals with (– –) genotype

Genetic Changes Within The Populations : The Consequences...
Lab Report 1
Genetic Changes in Populations: The Consequences of Selection
General Biology II Lab
Junyao Li
Introduction
In this lab, we explore the reason genetic changes happened within a population. We use bean–bag
model to simulate allele and genotype frequencies for three generations of deer mice under three
different selective regimes. Then, we use the Hardy–Weinberg Principle to assess the selection and
evolution experienced by deer mice. The Hardy–Weinberg Principle is one of the most important
principles in population genetic. G.H. Hardy and W. Weinberg discover it in 1908 independently.
Hardy–Weinberg principle states that In a population that is not evolving, allele and genotype
frequencies will remain constant from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Through simulation of varies selection pressure, we could gain an accurate assessment of the impact
of selection on deer mice. The purpose of this lab is to learn know how selection changes the genetic
makeup in a population. We want to know if different selection pressure would affect genetic
makeups in deer mice population. We hypothesized that as selection pressure increase, the frequency
of pale coat color deer mice within a population will decrease, and the speed of evolution for the
population will increase. Darwin's natural selection theory, which states that nature would select
those who have best adaptation to their environments, lead us to predict that dark coat color deer
mice would have better adaptation to their dark habitat, and thus would survive better.
Methods This lab was conducted in Merritt College on June 22, 2015. We use blue color bean to
represent dominant allele D, and red color bean to represent recessive allele d. We conduct three
simulations, each of which has different selection pressure. We begin each simulation with 100
alleles sample that are randomly drawn form a large gene pool. For the first simulation, there is 0%
selection against pale coat color deer mice. We randomly draw two beans out of the 100 alleles
sample, and record the genotypes of these two beans on a tally sheet. Then, we put

Population Genetics
In 1831, Charles Darwin, proposed a theory of evolution occurring by the process of natural
selection. This has come to be known as the Theory of Natural Selection. Darwin worked on his
theory for 20 years and after learning that Alfred Russel Wallace, another naturalist, had developed
similar ideas, the two made a joint announcement of their discovery in 1858. Darwin published 'On
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection' in 1859, 28 years after he proposed his theory
of natural selection. [1]
Darwin's theory of natural selection states that evolutionary change comes through the production of
variation in each generation and differential survival of individuals with different combinations of
these variable characters. [2] ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[4]
A definitive description of Huntington's Chorea occurred, when George Huntington submitted his
article 'On chorea' to the Medical and Surgical Reporter of Philadelphia, USA, in 1872, 31 years
after Waters gave his description of the disorder. Waters ' described a disorder 'which is markedly
hereditary, very rarely makes its appearance before adult life, in all cases induces a state of more or
less perfect dementia and never ceases while life lasts'. The disease was recorded early on by
observers; however Waters' description was the first detailed description of the disease. It is believed
that the disease was present among the population at a much earlier date as it is caused by a
dominant allele. Because of its long history, and the fact that the mutation rate for Huntington's
chorea is among the lowest recorded for any inherited condition, the disease has great potential in
genealogical investigations. The Afrikaner population posed as a great source to study the disease
because of the excellent recording of the origins and history of the Afrikaner nation. The excellent
documentation facilitated efforts to trace the disease back to the earliest transmission of the gene to
South Africa.
In their research they found that the only previous attempt to investigate the genealogy of this
disease in

This Tournament Goes to Eleven
This Tournament Goes to Eleven 2007
This Packet Has Gone to the Dogs (theme packet)
Written by: Delaware (Bill Tressler)
Every question will mention a dog somewhere, but answers need not be specifically a dog's name or
breed. Tossups 1. One character by this name was a son of Zeus and Niobe who succeeded Apis as
king of Phoronea. Another had the labors of freeing Arcadia and killing Satyr, while a third is seen
"lying neglected on the heaps of mule and cow dung" and could not get up to greet those entering.
After one of those figures was slain his 100 most famous attributes were placed on the tails of
peacocks, as Hera had previously entrusted him to watch Io with his many eyes. The brother of
Cerberus and the dog of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Subtitled "In Search of America", For 10 points, name this work in which the namesake poodle is
accompanied by John Steinbeck.
ANSWER: Travels with Charlie
7. A 2006 film by this title includes the characters Vaguely Hot Old Chick, Insufferable Prick, and
Poseur, and features Keira Leverton administering some deserved smack downs. In a 1995 Connie
Chung interview, Newt Gingrich was politically embarrassed after his mother used this word during
a Hilary Clinton question. Big Fat and Super King Kamehameha are the kinds that Sheila Broflovski
demonstrates in a song by Eric Cartman. For 10 points, name this term whose definitions include
"an unpleasant person" and "a female dog".
ANSWER: bitch
8. Alcatel–Lucent historically describes it as "of unusual simplicity, power, and elegance", a manta
repeated by devotees. Some say a dog living near U.C. Berkley who barked when the mail arrived
provided the inspiration for its mail notification known as biff. A Y2K–like problem will occur for
those using its "time", which measures nanoseconds since 1970. Other utilities include "tty" [T–T–
Y], "pwd" [P–W–D] and "chmod" [C–H–"mod"], used to change permissions. Its name originally
ended with a "c" but now uses "x". For 10 points––name this operating system developed by Ken
Thompson at Bell Labs, the namesake of a family of systems including GNU, OpenSolaris, and

Introduction to Evolution
Introduction To Evolution
What is Evolution? Evolution is the process by which all living things have developed from
primitive organisms through changes occurring over billions of years, a process that includes all
animals and plants. Exactly how evolution occurs is still a matter of debate, but there are many
different theories and that it occurs is a scientific fact. Biologists agree that all living things come
through a long history of changes shaped by physical and chemical processes that are still taking
place. It is possible that all organisms can be traced back to the origin of Life from one celled
organims.
The most direct proof of evolution is the science of Paleontology, or the study of life in the past
through ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He presented his discovery along with another English naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who
independently discovered natural selection at about the same time. The following year Darwin
published his full theory, supported with enormous evidence, in On the Origin of Species.
Genetics
The contribution of genetics to the understanding of evolution has been the explanation of the
inheritance in individuals of the same species.
Gregor Mendel discovered the basic principles of inheritance in 1865, but his work was unknown to
Darwin. Mendel's work was "rediscovered" by other scientists around 1900. From that time to 1925
the science of genetics developed rapidly, and many of Darwin's ideas about the inheritance of
variations were found to be incorrect. Only since 1925 has natural selection again been recognized
as essential in evolution. The modern theory of evolution combines the findings of modern genetics
with the basic framework supplied by Darwin and Wallace, creating the basic principle of
Population Genetics. Modern population genetics was developed largely during the 1930s and '40s
by the mathematicians J. B. S.
Haldane and R. A. Fisher and by the biologists Theodosius Dobzhansky , Julian
Huxley, Ernst Mayr, George Gaylord SIMPSON, Sewall Wright, Berhard Rensch, and G.
Ledyard Stebbins. According to the theory, variability among

Drosophila Melanogaster Experiment Essay
Drosophila melanogaster were studied to test whether evolution occurred in the population by
analyzing the genotype and allele frequencies for 7 weeks. If evolution was occurring, then the
aforementioned frequencies would change instead of remaining constant as they would if no
evolution was occurring. The hypothesis of this lab is that evolution will occur due to the violation
of three Hardy–Weinberg principles. This lab was carried out using 20 flies to start, 5 each of male
and females that were homozygous ebony and wild type. New culture vials were made every other
week when the flies were scored. On alternate weeks, the adults were transferred to a fly morgue.
The results showed that the ebony allele frequency increased and the wild type ... Show more
The ebony allele frequency increased and the wild type allele frequency decreased. The
heterozygous genotype frequency remained fairly constant, the homozygous for wild type frequency
decreased, and the homozygous for ebony frequency increased. The low probability of the changes
in allele and genotype frequencies occurring due to chance for week 3 indicates that evolution is
occurring while opposite is true for weeks 5 and 7, where the changes can be attributed to chance,
meaning the null hypothesis is true for those weeks. Thus, it can be said that the hypothesis that
evolution will occur can be rejected because overall it is likely that the changes in frequencies were
due to chance, not evolution. A study at the University of Sheffield regarding competitive mating
success revealed that the fact that male ebony flies are partially blind, which reduces their mating
success as compared to heterozygous males. Furthermore, the heterozygous wild type flies have an
advantage over homozygous wild type flies in that they have a superior courtship song. This study
helps to explain why the genotype frequencies in week 7 in order from greatest to least were as
follows: +e, ee, ++.

The Importance Of Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
Prior to 1908, scientists were unable to consider a single gene in a diploid organism let alone being
able to determine its proportions. Luckily two very important individuals, Godfrey Hardy and
Wilhem Weinberg, combined forces and derived a theorem to calculate equilibrium in allele
frequencies. Today, this theorem is referred to as Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. In one Cell Journal
article, the importance of such a theorem is describe as, "Population–based genetic association
studies have proven to be a powerful tool in identifying genes implicated in many complex human
diseases that have a huge impact on public health. An essential quality control step in such studies is
to undertake Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) calculations" ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
For the purpose of this experiment, I propose that if a population experiences forces such as genetic
drift, selection, and non–random mating combined, then the fittest allele will express dominance,
leading to elimination of alternative alleles, and an extreme decrease in population size. Each
scenario was run through the Koi Fish pond simulation and then finally all run together to compare
how each force works on their own and then when combined.
Methods:
To simulate the introduction of genetic drift, selection, and non–random mating into a population,
www.virtualbiologylab.org, specifically the PopGen Fish Pond was used. This simulator allows
experiments to be conducted online without the need of anything tangible besides a computer. The
website specifically describes the simulator as "simulating natural environment with the way life
responds to changing conditions". Within the simulator, parameters and conditions can be adjusted
to model the population with the forces accordingly. For this experiment, parameters were set as
follows: initial size–50, carrying capacity–50, rr–1, Rr–0.5, RR 0.5, strength of assortment–0.6. The
remaining parameters were left as they were set by the simulator.

Genetic Aspects Of Stroke : The Brain Essay
Genetic Aspects of Stroke
The brain is the most complex of all the organs in the body. It is comprised of three pounds of tissue,
which operates as the nerve center of the body. It connects all of our body functions, such as
behavior, emotions, and movement. Because the brain is very hard working organ, it requires a
constant supply of oxygen and nutrients from blood to function effectively. The heart pumps blood
throughout the cerebral arteries, and delivers blood to the brain. Therefore, any significant
interruption to the supply of nutrients and oxygen, results in killing brain cells. Damage to brain
cells occurs when there is significant restriction of blood flow to the brain. When any part of the
brain experiences blood flow restriction, the result can lead to affecting body functions and in the
worse cases; death can occur.
The term "stroke "comes from the once popular idea that someone had received a "stroke of God 's
hand" and was therefore damaged. Strokes are also called cerebrovascular accidents or brain attacks
to emphasize the importance to get immediate medical attention when it is occurring. Stroke is the
third leading killer in the United States. A stroke can be destroying by inherit from family genetic or
nationality, metabolism of the body.
"Stroke is leading cause of death and the major cause of adult neurological disability. In the USA,
795 000 stroke occur every year." (name ) The proportion rises most strongly with age, therefore
with the

Variation Of Alleles
Genetic variation of alleles is evident through physical attributes of humans and can be attributed to
the specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA. Gregor Mendel experimented with plant breeding in
order to determine that the inheritance of different traits is dependent upon the differences in alleles,
or genes. Two loci that can measure the genetic variation in human populations are the LCT locus
and the TAS2R38 locus (Leicht & McAllister, 2017). The LCT locus is located on chromosome 2,
and encodes for the enzyme lactase that breaks down lactose into its monomers to aid digestion of
dairy in the small intestine (Leicht & McAllister, 2017). The two potential alleles that LCT has are C
and T, which can form three potential genotypes in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We were then using the Hardy–Weinberg Principle to calculate the observed and expected values of
genotype frequencies within the class and compare the results using the Chi–Square goodness of fit
test (Leicht & McAllister, 2017). Demonstrated by the Hardy–Weinberg Principle, that without any
evolutionary forces, the allele and genotype frequencies of sexual populations will remain constant
between generations (Sadava, 2011). The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium is met be a population under
five specific conditions: no genetic mutation, random mating between individuals (no sexual
selection), infinite population size (no genetic drift, or any chance of variation with allele
frequencies), no gene flow (migration of new individuals into or out of the population), and no
natural selection (all genotypes contain the same relative fitness for survival and reproduction). If
any of these conditions are not met, the population is not in Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium and
evolution is occurring. The expected frequencies within a population are determined by two
equations: p + q = 1 for allele frequencies, and p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 for genotype frequencies (Sadava,
2011). After using the Hardy–Weinberg Principle, we used the Chi–Square goodness of fit test to
compare the expected and observed frequencies of the LCT and TAS2R38 loci, we

Essay on Hardy Weinberg Sheet
Biology Hardy–Weinberg Lab Using the Hardy–Weinberg equation, calculate the predicted
genotype frequencies for each population scenario below. Place your calculations and data in the
space provided below. Once you have calculated the frequencies, answer the conclusion questions
for each one. Please remember that all calculations must be shown for full credit. Scenario #1 In the
year 2050, humans have successfully colonized the Moon. The lunar modules created for this
purpose could only house a small population of people. It is now a century later and the population
has grown to 4,000 people. In the current Moon population, 10 people express the recessive
phenotype for cystic fibrous (cc genotype). q2 – 10/4000 = 0.0025 q – √0.0025 ... Show more
No 2) Is the current population evolving? Yes 3) If the current population is evolving, what type of
effect is responsible for genetic drift? The effect of genetic drift responsible is the bottleneck effect.
Scenario #3 Sickle cell anemia is more common in sub–Saharan regions of Africa, where malaria is
prevalent, than it is in regions where malaria is not common. This is because being heterozygous for
sickle cell anemia in malaria–prone regions carries a fitness. A new malaria vaccine was introduced
and given to all the people of Population A, which is located in one of the regions where malaria is
most prevalent. Since the government wished to test the effectiveness of the vaccine, Population A
was isolated; therefore, there was no migration in or out of the population. Every citizen of
Population A was vaccinated when the experiment began, and every new baby was vaccinated
immediately after birth. Allele frequencies were calculated every 20 years. After 100 years, 360 out
of 1,000 people in Population A are homozygous recessive for sickle cell anemia (ss genotype). q2 –
360/1000 = 0.36 q – 0.36 = 0.6 p – 1– 0.6 = 0.4 p2 – = 0.16 2pq – 2 x (0.4) x (0.6) = 0.48
Conclusion Questions Use this information to help you answer the

The Punctuated Equilibrium Theory Has Had Much More...
NARRATOR: We begin our night at the Witte family dinner table. All the guests have finally arrived
and fresh bread rolls complete with garlic butter have been served to everyone. At one end of the
fairly large table, Gould and Lyell begin to have a heated conversation.
LYELL: *Clears throat* Ah, excuse me, Mr. Gould, but for your new theory, have you been
successfully able to find any support for it?
GOULD: Why, yes, of course Mr. Lyell. The punctuated equilibrium theory has had much more
support than the gradualism in the fossil record.
LYELL: Oh, really? If you would so kindly elaborate on this, it would be much appreciated.
GOULD: Certainly, Mr. Lyell. Well, I have found several specimens at one stage, and several at
another instead ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
LYELL: Well, do you have any support other than just the fossils?
GOULD: Why yes, my good sir. Evolution is driven by the changing environment. If the
environment or climate changes, then it will kill off the individuals of the species with unfavorable
traits to survive in the new conditions. That is nothing new, it's here proven in Mr. Darwin's theory;
you should be well aware of it. Well, the environment does not change gradually, and therefore, I
believe my good Sir, that animals don't change gradually.
LYELL: But it is clear– *interrupted by Mendel*
MENDEL: Gentlemen, I am so sorry to break up this wonderful discussion, but I really was
listening intently out of interest in it, but the butter seems to have gone around to your side of the
table, and I cannot quite reach it. Would you be so kind and pass it to me?
SCENE 2
NARRATOR: As the task of passing the butter is completed, the conversation soon turns to Mendel,
as Wade asks him more about the modern world.
WADE: So, Mr. Mendel, how do you like our modern world?
MENDEL: Ah, well everything has changed in this world. I am becoming very lost, very quickly.
WADE: Well, you know, not everything is changing. Actually, your discoveries on genetics are still
valid today.
MENDEL: Well, thats one thing.
WADE: Did you know even Mr. Linnaeus's taxonomy is around, and that was a century before you.
And the math has not changed either. Politics seems to change, but it's

Charles Darwin And Alfred Wallace
QXT2 Task 2
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace like so many of their predecessors made observations of natural
phenomena that inspired proposals of how life on earth evolved, unlike others these men formed
plausible explanations of how the changes in populations occurred without having any knowledge of
Mendelian genetics which was presented in 1868, and provided the micro–mechanism for evolution
that Darwin could never explain with his theory of Pangenesis. Rather, based solely on the
observations each made over time observing different species of populations around the world, both
men were able to pen the ideals that would serve as the foundation of the modern theory of
evolution.
Both Wallace and Darwin explored the proposals that had been set forth by the likes of Lamarck,
Lyell, and Thomas Malthus. In 1858 the Linnaean Society of London published the contributions of
both Wallace and Darwin, which although had significant differences shared the framework of
proposing decent with modification based on natural selection. The principle of natural selection
provides the rationale of how changes occur in a species over time. It represents the sum total of all
environmental factors exerting pressure on a species. The pressure either benefits an organism that
has a favorable variation; triggering a natural advantage to the survival value of that
organism/species, or either the pressure exposes weaknesses in an organism/species that has
unfavorable variations. Unfavorable

Theory Of Natural Selection And Genetic Drift
Evolution is the process in which various living organisms developed and diversified over time. The
study of evolution is important because it helps understand how species adapt to changing
environments. Evolution has been studied over time by observing populations when they undergo
evolutionary mechanisms such as natural selection or genetic drift. Charles Darwin came up with
the theory of natural selection. Darwin believed that living organisms tended to survive and produce
more offspring when they were better adapted to their environment. Apart from natural selection,
genetic drift was also an important mechanism. Genetic drift occurs when the gene variant changes
due to the random testing of organisms. Populations of organisms change over time because of
natural selection and genetic drift. The Hardy–Weinberg equation is used to observe whether a
specific trait within a population is changing or not. A null– hypothesis is provided by the Hardy–
Weinberg equation that can be compared to a straightforward observation of a population. The
Hardy–Weinberg equation only remains true under the circumstances that the allele and genotype
frequencies remain the same as generations continue to come about. When no evolutionary change
has occurred, the population is said to be in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Populations are rarely in
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Drosophila melanogaster is a fruit fly that is commonly used in
genetic studies. Drosophila only live around two weeks.

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