The document provides an overview of biodiversity and systems of classification of living organisms. It summarizes the five kingdom system of classification proposed by R.H. Whittaker, which divides organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia - based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition mode, and phylogeny. Key details are provided on defining features of each kingdom, addressing limitations of prior systems. The five kingdom system accounts for diversity of life and evolutionary relationships between different groups.
Binomial System of Nomenclature is used in Taxonomy. It has been first time used consistently by Carolous Linnaeus aka Carl von Linne in his famous Species Plantarum published in 1753.
Binomial System of Nomenclature is used in Taxonomy. It has been first time used consistently by Carolous Linnaeus aka Carl von Linne in his famous Species Plantarum published in 1753.
A group of cells which are similar in Origin and function but of more than One type in structure.
Water conducting tissue
Along with phloem make vascular tissue
Provide support to plants
1)Tracheary elements
These are nonliving cells, provide support and conduct water. Two types,
(a)Tracheids: elongate, tube like cell, tapering, rounded or oval ends, hard lignified walls.
(b)Vessels members: long, cylindrical, tube-like structures with lignified walls.
(2)Fibres: thick walls, evolve from tracheids and provide mechanical strength. Two types,
(a)Fibre-tracheids: medium thickness walls, have reduced boardered pits.
(b)Libriform fibres: very thick walls, have reduced simple pits.
Parenchyma cells: living cells, in woody plants, store of food in starch form. Two types:
(a)Axial parenchyma: derived from fusiform initials, have tracheary elements and fibres.
(b)Ray parenchyma: derived from ray initials of cambium, xylem ray cells.
Developmentally, xylem have two types
(1)Primary xylem: derived from procambium, developing from embryo, non-woody plants.
(2)Secondary xylem: from vascular cambium, second stage of plant development, in woody plants.
Angiosperms are the flowering plants also known as Magnoliophyta. The botanical term "Angiosperm" meaning ‘bottle or vessel’ is derived from the ancient Greek. These are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants and the distinguished features of angiosperms over gymnosperms are angiosperms bear flowers, endosperm within the seeds and the production of fruits that contain the seed. According to the botanists the flowering plants diversified and widespread 120 million years ago. The classification of the flowering plants also has a long history.
In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small group resulting large number of systems. Different systems and their updates were generally favored in different countries. Bentham and Hooker’s system was popular in the Britain and the Engler’s system was famous in the Europe etc. These systems were introduced before the availability of genetic evidences and angiosperms were classified using their morphology and biochemistry. After the 1980’s genetic evidences were available and phylogenetic methods came into the classification procedures.
In the late 1990s, an informal group of researchers from major institutions worldwide came together and they established the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). The objective was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification. APG I was published in 1998 as their first attempt in Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics. The group emphasized the need for a classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above. The existed systems are rejected is because they are not phylogenetically classified. The outline of a phylogenetic tree of all flowering plants became established and several well supported major clades involving many families of flowering plants were identified. The new knowledge of phylogeny revealed relationships in conflict with the then widely used modern classifications.
The principles of APG system are retaining the Linnean system of orders and families, Use of monophyletic groups (Consist of all descendants of a common ancestor), taking a broad approach to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families and use of term ‘clades’ above or parallel to the level of orders and families. A major outcome of the classification is the disappearance of the traditional division of the flowering plants into two groups, which are monocots and dicots.
Even though there are several controversies about APG the botanists worldwide are influenced by the concept and are currently practice the system.
Community Ecology
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
APG I
APG II
APG III
APG IV
Molecular Based system
features and organization
Merits and demerits
Difference in APG system.
A group of cells which are similar in Origin and function but of more than One type in structure.
Water conducting tissue
Along with phloem make vascular tissue
Provide support to plants
1)Tracheary elements
These are nonliving cells, provide support and conduct water. Two types,
(a)Tracheids: elongate, tube like cell, tapering, rounded or oval ends, hard lignified walls.
(b)Vessels members: long, cylindrical, tube-like structures with lignified walls.
(2)Fibres: thick walls, evolve from tracheids and provide mechanical strength. Two types,
(a)Fibre-tracheids: medium thickness walls, have reduced boardered pits.
(b)Libriform fibres: very thick walls, have reduced simple pits.
Parenchyma cells: living cells, in woody plants, store of food in starch form. Two types:
(a)Axial parenchyma: derived from fusiform initials, have tracheary elements and fibres.
(b)Ray parenchyma: derived from ray initials of cambium, xylem ray cells.
Developmentally, xylem have two types
(1)Primary xylem: derived from procambium, developing from embryo, non-woody plants.
(2)Secondary xylem: from vascular cambium, second stage of plant development, in woody plants.
Angiosperms are the flowering plants also known as Magnoliophyta. The botanical term "Angiosperm" meaning ‘bottle or vessel’ is derived from the ancient Greek. These are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants and the distinguished features of angiosperms over gymnosperms are angiosperms bear flowers, endosperm within the seeds and the production of fruits that contain the seed. According to the botanists the flowering plants diversified and widespread 120 million years ago. The classification of the flowering plants also has a long history.
In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small group resulting large number of systems. Different systems and their updates were generally favored in different countries. Bentham and Hooker’s system was popular in the Britain and the Engler’s system was famous in the Europe etc. These systems were introduced before the availability of genetic evidences and angiosperms were classified using their morphology and biochemistry. After the 1980’s genetic evidences were available and phylogenetic methods came into the classification procedures.
In the late 1990s, an informal group of researchers from major institutions worldwide came together and they established the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). The objective was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification. APG I was published in 1998 as their first attempt in Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics. The group emphasized the need for a classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above. The existed systems are rejected is because they are not phylogenetically classified. The outline of a phylogenetic tree of all flowering plants became established and several well supported major clades involving many families of flowering plants were identified. The new knowledge of phylogeny revealed relationships in conflict with the then widely used modern classifications.
The principles of APG system are retaining the Linnean system of orders and families, Use of monophyletic groups (Consist of all descendants of a common ancestor), taking a broad approach to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families and use of term ‘clades’ above or parallel to the level of orders and families. A major outcome of the classification is the disappearance of the traditional division of the flowering plants into two groups, which are monocots and dicots.
Even though there are several controversies about APG the botanists worldwide are influenced by the concept and are currently practice the system.
Community Ecology
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
APG I
APG II
APG III
APG IV
Molecular Based system
features and organization
Merits and demerits
Difference in APG system.
This is a very old school report that I did back when I was in the 8th grade . It's basically information concerning the Six Kingdoms. I hope you can make use of it. So buckle up!
Class 11th Biology
Chapter -2 Biological classification
Chapter-2 (Part -1) Biological classification ( जीव जगत का वर्गीकरण)
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Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. Diversity in living organism:
Biodiversity - Diversity among living organisms
There is a great diversity among living organisms found on the
planet earth. They differ in their structure, habit, habitat,
mode of nutrition, and physiology.
The Biodiversity of the earth is enormous. Current estimates
suggest that the earth may have anywhere from 10 to over 40
million species of organisms, but only about 1.7 million have
actually been described including over 7,50,000 insects, about
2,50,000 flowering plants and 47,000 vertebrate animals.
We call such diversity among living organisms as Biodiversity.
3. In order to understand them and study them systematically,
these living organisms, mainly the plants and animals are
grouped under different categories.
The branch of biology dealing with identification, naming
(nomenclature) and classifying the living organisms is known
as Taxonomy. The word Systematics means to put together.
It was Carolus Linnaeus who used this word first in his book
‘Systema Naturae’. Systematics may be defined as the
systematic placing of organisms into groups or taxa on the
basis of certain relationships between organisms.
5. History of Classification
In the 3rd and 4th century BC Aristotle and others
categorized organisms into plants and animals. They even
identified a few thousands or more of living organisms.
Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the Father of Medicine listed
organisms with medicinal value.
Aristotle and his student Theophrastus (370-282 BC) made
the first attempt to classify organisms without stressing their
medicinal value. They tried to classify the plants and animals
on the basis of their form and habitat. It was followed by
Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) who introduced the first artificial
system of classification in his book ‘Historia Naturalis’.
6. History of Classification
John Ray an English naturalist introduced the term species
for the first time for any kind of living things.
It was then Carolus Linnaeus the Swedish naturalist of 18th
century now known as Father of Taxonomy developed the
Binomial System of nomenclature which is the current
scientific system of naming the species. In his famous book
‘Species Plantarum’(1753) he described 5,900 species of
plants and in “systema Naturae’(1758) he described 4200
species of animals.
7. Two Kingdom System of Classification
Carolus Linnaeus(1758) divided all the living organisms into
two kingdoms.
1. Kingdom Plantae
2. Kingdom Animalia
8. 1. Kingdom Plantae:
This kingdom includes bacteria(Prokaryotes), photosynthetic
plants and non-photosynthetic fungi. The characteristic
features of this kingdom are:
Plants have branches, asymmetrical body with green leaves.
Plants are non motile and fixed in a place.
During the day time plants more actively involve in
photosynthesis than in respiration and hence take more of CO2
and liberate O2 & during night O2 is taken in and CO2 is
liberated.
They are autotrophic in their mode of nutrition since they
synthesize their own food.
9. 1. Kingdom Plantae:
Plants have growing points which have unlimited growth.
Excretory system and nervous system are absent.
Reserve food material is starch.
Cells have a cell wall. Cells have a lager vacuole. Plant cells
lack centrosome and they may have inorganic crystals.
Reproduction takes place with help of agents such as air,
water and insects. Asexual and vegetative method of
reproduction is also not uncommon.
10. 2. Kingdom Animalia:
This kingdom includes unicellular protozoans and multi-
cellular animals or metazoans. They are characterized by
Definite shape of the body and absence of branches.
Ability to move from place to place.
During day and night take in O2 and release CO2 i.e only
respiration takes place and there is no photosynthesis.
Holozoic mode of nutrition since no chlorophylls present
and hence they are heterotrophs.
Growth is limited in animals. Growth stops after attaining a
particular size and age.
Excretory system and nervous system are well developed.
11. 2. Kingdom Animalia:
Reserve food material is glycogen.
Lacks cell wall. They have small vacuoles. Centrosomes are
present. Cells do not have inorganic crystals.
Animals do not depend on any external agents for sexual
reproduction.
Regeneration of body parts and asexual reproduction is found
only in lower organisms.
12. Limitations of Two Kingdom System of
Classification
1. Certain organisms share the characteristics of both plants
and animals. eg. Euglena and Sponges. In Euglena, some
species have chlorophyll and are autotrophic like plants.
Euglena is also characterized by the presence of an animal
pigment astaxanthin in the eye spot.
2. Fungi are a group of organisms which have features of
their own. They lack chlorophyll. They are heterotrophic like
animals. They are placed along with green plants.
13. Limitations of Two Kingdom System of
Classification
3. Many primitive organisms such as bacteria did not fit into
either category and organisms like slime moulds are
amoeboid but form fruiting bodies similar to fungi.
4. The status of virus whether they are living or non living is
a point of debate even to -day.
For all these reasons the two hundred and fifty years old
Linnaeus system of classifying organisms into two rigid groups
animals and plants is considered highly arbitrary and
artificial.
14. The Five Kingdom System of Classification
In order to suggest a better system of classification of living
organisms, R.H. Whittaker (1969) an American Taxonomist
divided all the organisms into 5 kingdoms based on their
phylogenetic relationships.
The Five kingdoms are
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
Bacteria ProtistaFungi Plantae Animalia
15. This classification takes into account the following important
criteria.
1. Complexity of Cell structure – prokaryote to Eukaryote
2. Mode of nutrition – autotrophs and heterotrophs
3. Body organization -unicellular or multi-cellular
4. Phylogenetic or evolutionary relationship
The Five Kingdom System of Classification
16. 1. Monera : The Kingdom of Prokaryotes
This kingdom includes all prokaryotic organisms i.e.
mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes(filamentous bacteria)
and cyanobacteria (blue green Algae). They show the
following characters.
1. They are microscopic. They do not possess a true nucleus.
They lack membrane bound organelles.
2. Their mode of nutrition is autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Some bacteria are autotrophic and are photosynthetic. i.e.
they can synthesize their organic food in the presence of
sunlight eg. Spirillum
17. 1. Monera : The Kingdom of Prokaryotes
Some bacteria are chemosynthetic i.e. they can synthesize
their organic food by deriving energy from some chemical
reactions. eg. Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
3. Many other bacteria like Rhizobium, Azotobacter and
Clostridium can fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. This
phenomenon is called Biological Nitrogen Fixation .
4. Some bacteria are parasites and others live as symbionts.
5. Some monerans like Archaebacteria can live in extreme
environmental conditions like absence of oxygen (anaerobic),
high salt condition, high temperature like 800c or above and
highly acidic soils.
18. 2. Kingdom Protista
This kingdom includes eukaryotic unicellular mostly aquatic
cells. They how the following characters.
1. They have a typical Eukaryotic cell organization.
2. They often bear cilia or flagella for locomotion. Most of
them are photosynthetic autotrophs. They form the chief
producers of food in oceans and in fresh water. All unicellular
plants are collectively called as phytoplanktons and
unicellular animals as zooplanktons. Phytoplanktons are
photosynthetically active and have cell wall.
19. 2. Kingdom Protista
3. Zooplanktons are mostly predatory. They lack cell wall and
show holozoic mode of nutrition as in Amoeba.
4. Some protists are parasitic. Some are symbionts while
others are decomposers.
Euglena, a protozoan has two modes of nutrition. In the
presence of sunlight it is autotrophic and in the absence of
sunlight it is heterotrophic. This mode of nutrition is known as
myxotrophic and hence they form a border line between
plants and animals and can be classified in both.
20. 3. Kingdom Fungi
This kingdom includes moulds, mushrooms, toad stools,
puffballs and bracket fungi. They have eukaryotic cell
organization. They show the following characteristics.
1. They are either unicellular or multi-cellular organisms.
2. Their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic since they lack the
green pigment chlorophyll. Some fungi like Puccinia are
parasites while others like Rhizopus are saprotrophic and
feed on dead organic matter.
3. Their body is made up of numerous filamentous structures
called hyphae.
4. Their cell wall is made up of chitin.
21. 4. Kingdom Plantae
It includes all multi-cellular plants of land and water. Major
groups of Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms belong to this kingdom. It shows the
following characteristics.
1. The cells have a rigid cell wall made up of cellulose.
2. They show various modes of nutrition. Most of them are
autotrophs since they have chlorophyll. Some plants are
heterotrophs. For eg. Cuscuta is a parasite. Nepenthes and
Drosera are insectivorous plants.
22. 5. Kingdom Animalia
This kingdom includes all multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms.
They are also referred to as metazoans. They show the
following characteristic features.
1. All animals show heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They
form the consumers of an ecosystem.
2. They have contractibility of the muscle cells.
3. They can transmit impulses due to the presence of nerve
cells.
4. Some groups of animals are parasites eg. tapeworms and
roundworms.
23. Merits of the Five Kingdom Classification
1. It shows the phylogenetic relationships among the
organisms.
2. It is based on the complexity of the cell structure from
prokaryotic to eukaryotic cell organization.
3. It is based on the complexity of body organization from
unicellular to multicellular.
4. It is based on the modes of nutrition: autotrophic or
heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
24. Demerits of Five Kingdom Classification
1. Chlamydomonas and Chlorella are included under the
kingdom Plantae. They should have been included under
kingdom Protista since they are unicellular.
2. Animal protozoans are not included along with animals.
3. Animal protozoans are included under the kingdom Protista
which include unicellular plants. They show different modes
of nutrition.
4. Yeasts, though unicellular eukaryotes, are not placed in
the kingdom Protista.