1. HISTORY OFHISTORY OF
BIOGEOGRAPHYBIOGEOGRAPHY

2. PERSISTENT THEMES INPERSISTENT THEMES IN
BIOGEOGRAPHY:BIOGEOGRAPHY:
 1. Classifying geographic regions based on their1. Classifying geographic regions based on their
biotasbiotas

3. PERSISTENT THEMES INPERSISTENT THEMES IN
BIOGEOGRAPHY:BIOGEOGRAPHY:
 2. Reconstructing the2. Reconstructing the
historical development ofhistorical development of
biotas, including theirbiotas, including their
origin, spread, andorigin, spread, and
diversificationdiversification

4. PERSISTENT THEMES INPERSISTENT THEMES IN
BIOGEOGRAPHYBIOGEOGRAPHY::
 3. Explaining geographic variation in the3. Explaining geographic variation in the
characteristics of individuals and populations ofcharacteristics of individuals and populations of
closely related species, including trends inclosely related species, including trends in
morphology, behavior, and demography.morphology, behavior, and demography.

5. EARLYEARLY
BIOGEOGRAPHBIOGEOGRAPH
Y (1700's):Y (1700's):
 Carolus LinnaeusCarolus Linnaeus (1707(1707
- 1778)- 1778)
 - Binomial nomenclature- Binomial nomenclature
 - Life originated or- Life originated or
survived great flood onsurvived great flood on
Mount Ararat –> spreadMount Ararat –> spread
from this point aroundfrom this point around
the world.the world.

6. EARLYEARLY
BIOGEOGRAPHYBIOGEOGRAPHY
(1700's):(1700's):
 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de BuffonGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
 (1707-1788)(1707-1788)
 French NaturalistFrench Naturalist
- Northern origin of species migrating to Southern- Northern origin of species migrating to Southern
Hemispheres –> separation of New World and OldHemispheres –> separation of New World and Old
World.World.
 Buffon’s LawBuffon’s Law - Environmentally similar but isolated- Environmentally similar but isolated
regions have distinct assemblages of mammals andregions have distinct assemblages of mammals and
birds.birds.

7. EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):
 Sir Joseph BanksSir Joseph Banks (1750's - 1800's) and(1750's - 1800's) and
colleagues continued to find supportingcolleagues continued to find supporting
evidence for Buffon’s Law but also foundevidence for Buffon’s Law but also found
exceptions –>exceptions –> Cosmopolitan speciesCosmopolitan species..

8. EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):
 Johann ReinholdJohann Reinhold
ForsterForster (1729-1798)(1729-1798)
 - Phytogeography- Phytogeography
 - Buffon’s Law also true- Buffon’s Law also true
for plantsfor plants
 - Also observed tendency- Also observed tendency
for plant diversity tofor plant diversity to
decline towards poles –>decline towards poles –>
attributed to latitudinalattributed to latitudinal
trends in surface heattrends in surface heat

9. EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):
 Karl WilldenowKarl Willdenow (1765-1812)(1765-1812)
 - German botanist- German botanist
 - Floristic provinces of Europe- Floristic provinces of Europe
 - Proposed multiple sites of origination- Proposed multiple sites of origination

10. EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):
 Alexander vonAlexander von
HumboldtHumboldt (1769-1859)(1769-1859)
 - Student of Willdenow- Student of Willdenow
 - Further generalized- Further generalized
Buffon’s Law to includeBuffon’s Law to include
plants and mostplants and most
terrestrial animalsterrestrial animals
 - Floristic belts - within- Floristic belts - within
regions, plants areregions, plants are
distributed in elevationaldistributed in elevational
zonezone

11. EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):
 Augustin P. de CandolleAugustin P. de Candolle (1778-1841)(1778-1841)
 - Swiss botanist- Swiss botanist
 - Organisms compete for resources (light, heat,- Organisms compete for resources (light, heat,
water)water)
 - Contributed to Forster’s observations on- Contributed to Forster’s observations on
insular florasinsular floras

12. BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THEBIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:
 Three important advances of the 19th century:Three important advances of the 19th century:
 1. A better estimate of the age of the earth (many early1. A better estimate of the age of the earth (many early
biogeographers were working with an estimate of only a fewbiogeographers were working with an estimate of only a few
thousand years)thousand years)
 2. A better understanding of the dynamic nature of the2. A better understanding of the dynamic nature of the
continents and oceans (i.e., continental drift and plate tectonics)continents and oceans (i.e., continental drift and plate tectonics)
 3. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the3. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the
spread and diversification of speciesspread and diversification of species

13. BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THEBIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:
 Adolphe BrongniartAdolphe Brongniart (1801 -1876) and(1801 -1876) and CharlesCharles
LyellLyell (1797-1875)(1797-1875)
 - Fathers of Paleobotany and geology,- Fathers of Paleobotany and geology,
respectivelyrespectively
 - Used fossil records to infer conditions of past- Used fossil records to infer conditions of past
climatesclimates
 - Lyell also documented sea levels had changed- Lyell also documented sea levels had changed
 - Demonstrated extinctions in the fossil record- Demonstrated extinctions in the fossil record

14.  - Lyell unfortunately continued to believe that- Lyell unfortunately continued to believe that
species were NOT mutable and that new speciesspecies were NOT mutable and that new species
did NOT arise from existing species.did NOT arise from existing species.
 - Realized along with other geologists such as- Realized along with other geologists such as
James Hutton (1726-1797) that the earth wasJames Hutton (1726-1797) that the earth was
much older than previously thought.much older than previously thought.

15. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 Charles DarwinCharles Darwin
 - “The Origin of Species” in 1858- “The Origin of Species” in 1858
 - Set sail in 1831 on a 5 year voyage of the HMS- Set sail in 1831 on a 5 year voyage of the HMS
BeagleBeagle
 - Patterns of variability in the Galapagos- Patterns of variability in the Galapagos
ArchipelagoArchipelago

16. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 Joseph Dalton HookerJoseph Dalton Hooker
 - Strong supporter of Charles Darwin- Strong supporter of Charles Darwin
 - Studied plants of the Southern Hemisphere- Studied plants of the Southern Hemisphere
 Correct about affinities of Southern hemisphereCorrect about affinities of Southern hemisphere
plants but wrong about mechanism of dispersalplants but wrong about mechanism of dispersal

17. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 -- Proposed the emergence and submergenceProposed the emergence and submergence
of ancient and undiscovered continents andof ancient and undiscovered continents and
landbridgeslandbridges
 - Stressed the importance of studying insular- Stressed the importance of studying insular
biotasbiotas

18.  Confirmed earlier observations of ForsterConfirmed earlier observations of Forster
and others that insular floras tend to beand others that insular floras tend to be
more depauperate than those on themore depauperate than those on the
mainland, and noted that as island isolationmainland, and noted that as island isolation
increases, the number of plant speciesincreases, the number of plant species
decreases, while distinctiveness of the floradecreases, while distinctiveness of the flora
increases.increases.
 - Also drew analogy between the flora of- Also drew analogy between the flora of
ocean islands and high mountainsocean islands and high mountains

19. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 Philip Lutley SclaterPhilip Lutley Sclater
 -- Ornithologist who described 1067 species,Ornithologist who described 1067 species,
135 genera, and 2 families of birds135 genera, and 2 families of birds
 - Six biogeographic regions still in use today- Six biogeographic regions still in use today

20. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 Alfred Russel WallaceAlfred Russel Wallace
 - Considered the father of- Considered the father of
ZoogeographyZoogeography
 - Thee major books - The Malay Archipelago- Thee major books - The Malay Archipelago
(1869), The Geographical Distribution of(1869), The Geographical Distribution of
Animals (1876) and Island Life (1880)Animals (1876) and Island Life (1880)
 - Wallace’s worked greatly expanded on- Wallace’s worked greatly expanded on
Sclater’s 1858 schemeSclater’s 1858 scheme

21. Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:
 Wallace’s Line - sharp faunal gap between theWallace’s Line - sharp faunal gap between the
islands of Bali and Lombok in the East Indies -islands of Bali and Lombok in the East Indies -
where many species of SE Asia reach theirwhere many species of SE Asia reach their
distributional limit and are replaced by formsdistributional limit and are replaced by forms
from Australasiafrom Australasia

22. Wallace’s LineWallace’s Line

23. Wallace's Biogeographical Regions -Wallace's Biogeographical Regions -
18761876
 Palaearctic Region: temperate Eurasia.Palaearctic Region: temperate Eurasia.
 Ethiopian: Africa, south of the Tropic of Cancer.Ethiopian: Africa, south of the Tropic of Cancer.
 Oriental: Tropical Asia, including the adjacent tropicalOriental: Tropical Asia, including the adjacent tropical
Greater Sunda Islands.Greater Sunda Islands.
 Australian: including New Guinea and adjacent islands.Australian: including New Guinea and adjacent islands.
 Nearctic: North America south to central Mexico.Nearctic: North America south to central Mexico.
 Neotropical: South America and central America as farNeotropical: South America and central America as far
north as central Americanorth as central America

24. BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THEBIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:
 C. Hart Merriam (1894)C. Hart Merriam (1894)
 Extensive field studies in the southwesternExtensive field studies in the southwestern
North AmericaNorth America
 Observed that elevation changes in vegetationObserved that elevation changes in vegetation
type and plant species composition are generallytype and plant species composition are generally
equivalent to the latitudinal vegetation changesequivalent to the latitudinal vegetation changes
found as one moves toward the poles.found as one moves toward the poles.

25. Merriam’s Life ZonesMerriam’s Life Zones
 Called belts of similarCalled belts of similar
vegetation “Life Zones”vegetation “Life Zones”
 Correctly concluded thatCorrectly concluded that
elevational zonation likeelevational zonation like
latitudinal zonation is alatitudinal zonation is a
response of species andresponse of species and
communities tocommunities to
environmental gradientsenvironmental gradients
of temperature andof temperature and
rainfallrainfall

26. Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:
 Gloger’s ruleGloger’s rule - within a species, individuals- within a species, individuals
from more humid habitats tend to be darker infrom more humid habitats tend to be darker in
color than those from drier habitatscolor than those from drier habitats

27. Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:
 Bergmann’s ruleBergmann’s rule - in endothermic vertebrates,- in endothermic vertebrates,
races from cooler climates tend to have largerraces from cooler climates tend to have larger
body sizes, and hence smaller surface-to-volumebody sizes, and hence smaller surface-to-volume
ratios, races of the same species from warmerratios, races of the same species from warmer
climatesclimates

28. Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:
 Allen’s ruleAllen’s rule - among endothermic species, limbs- among endothermic species, limbs
and other extremities are shorter and moreand other extremities are shorter and more
compact in individuals living in colder climatescompact in individuals living in colder climates

29. Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:
 Cope’s ruleCope’s rule - the evolution of a group shows a- the evolution of a group shows a
trend toward increased body size. Althoughtrend toward increased body size. Although
there are many exceptions, there does appear tothere are many exceptions, there does appear to
that certain advantages of large size havethat certain advantages of large size have
resulted in repeated increases in size in manyresulted in repeated increases in size in many
animal lineagesanimal lineages

30. FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETHFIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY:CENTURY:
 Numerous paleontologist described the origin,Numerous paleontologist described the origin,
dispersal, radiation , and decline of land vertebrates.dispersal, radiation , and decline of land vertebrates.
 Explanations for how terrestrial organisms could haveExplanations for how terrestrial organisms could have
spread from one landmass to another landmassspread from one landmass to another landmass
included:included:
 - short-lived landbridges or island archipelagos- short-lived landbridges or island archipelagos
 - former continents, now sunken- former continents, now sunken
 - once-joined continents, now drifted apart- once-joined continents, now drifted apart

31. BIOGEOGRAPHY SINCE THEBIOGEOGRAPHY SINCE THE
1950s:1950s:
 Four major developments:Four major developments:
 1. Acceptance of plate tectonics1. Acceptance of plate tectonics
 2. Development of new phylogenetic methods2. Development of new phylogenetic methods
 3. New ways of conducting research in ecological biogeography3. New ways of conducting research in ecological biogeography
 4. Investigations of the mechanisms that limit distributions4. Investigations of the mechanisms that limit distributions

32. Continental DriftContinental Drift
 Until the 1960's, most biogeographersUntil the 1960's, most biogeographers
considered the earth’s crust to be fixed andconsidered the earth’s crust to be fixed and
without lateral movementwithout lateral movement
 Antonio Snider-PelligriniAntonio Snider-Pelligrini in 1858 firstin 1858 first
introduced the theory of plate tectonics andintroduced the theory of plate tectonics and
continental driftcontinental drift

35. Continental DriftContinental Drift
 Alfred L. WegenerAlfred L. Wegener, a German meteorologist,, a German meteorologist,
reproposed the theory of continental driftreproposed the theory of continental drift
 - 60 years later- 60 years later
 - published his theories between 1912 and 1956- published his theories between 1912 and 1956
 - based on extensive geological and some biological- based on extensive geological and some biological
evidenceevidence
 - harshly rejected and criticized by most biogeographers- harshly rejected and criticized by most biogeographers
 - finally accepted in the late 1960's when geological- finally accepted in the late 1960's when geological
evidence became irrefutableevidence became irrefutable

36. Island BiogeographyIsland Biogeography
 Robert H. MacArthurRobert H. MacArthur andand Edward O. WilsonEdward O. Wilson
(1960's)(1960's)
 - Equilibrium theory of island biogeography- Equilibrium theory of island biogeography
 - Focused on fundamental processes -- Focused on fundamental processes -
immigration and extinctionimmigration and extinction

37. BiogeographyBiogeography
 Increasing number ofIncreasing number of
publications in the past 3publications in the past 3
decadesdecades
 Advances in computerAdvances in computer
technology and relatedtechnology and related
techniques such astechniques such as
satellite imagery,satellite imagery,
geographic informationgeographic information
system (GIS), havesystem (GIS), have
increased our ability toincreased our ability to
answer questionsanswer questions