Biodiversity

1
BIODIVERSITY
Aakansha
1216512101
B. Arch, Semester - 2
GSA, Gitam University,
Vishakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh

CONTENTS
Sr No. TOPIC Pg No.
1. What is biodiversity 3
2. Types of biodiversity
i) Genetic biodiversity
ii) Species biodiversity
iii) Ecological biodiversity
iv) Functional biodiversity
4-6
4
5
5
6
3. Facts related to biodiversity
i) World
ii) India
7
8
4. Plant & animal species 9
5. hotspots 10
6. Biodiversity and balance 11
7. Benefits from biodiversity 12
8. Importance of biodiversity 13,14
9. Threats to biodiversity 15
10. Impact of loss of biodiversity 16-19
11. Conservation of biodiversity 20-23
12. Conservation measures 23,24
13. conclusion 25
2

What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a
given species, ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity
is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a
function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are
typically rich whereas Polar Regions support fewer species.
"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly
defined and long established terms, species diversity and species
richness. Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of
genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this
definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and
presents a unified view of the traditional three levels at which
biological variety has been identified.
3

Types of biodiversity
In biodiversity on the basis of variation and distribution,
four types are evolved which deals with living species
separately. The types of biodiversity vary from place to
place. These types are as follows
1.Genetic Diversity
2.Species Diversity
3.Ecological Diversity
4.Functional Diversity
The genetic diversity: It is a type of biodiversity which deals
with the living organisms genetically i.e. variation in the genes
of the species and the genetic make up of species differ from
each other to produce a new generation is categorized as
genetic diversity.
Every individual in a species differs widely from other individuals in
its genetic makeup due to large number of combinations possible
in the genes. This genetic variability is essential for healthy
breeding population of a species. The reduction of genetic diversity
will result in in-breeding in species. This leads to genetic anomalies
and eventually extinction of that particular species. The variety of
nature’s bounty can be exploited if we breed domestic plant and
animal varieties with their wild varieties to make them more
productive and disease – resistant. Modern biotechnology also
manipulates genes to develop better types of seeds, medicines
and other industrial raw materials.
Examples: 5,000 recorded varieties of mango
88,000 recorded varieties of Oryza sativa
4

The species diversity: The change happening in the variety of
different types of living organisms present in different places
in the same geographical area is referred as specie diversity.
Every natural and man-made ecosystem is made up of a variety of
animal and plant species. Some ecosystems such as tropical
rainforests are very rich in the number of species as compared to
other ecosystems such as the desert ecosystem. At present the
scientists have been able to identify 1.8 million species on the
Earth. However, this may only be a fraction of what really exists.
Examples: Felis tigris, Felis domestica
The ecosystem diversity: As we know that ecology is the
study of different communities among their environment so, it
is that branch of biodiversity which deals with variation in the
ecological area or environment such as desert, forests,
grassland, streams and coral reefs etc. is known as ecological
diversity.
There are a large variety of different ecosystems on the Earth.
Distinctive ecosystems include natural landscapes like forests,
grasslands, deserts, mountains etc. as well as aquatic ecosystems
like rivers, lakes and seas. Each of these also has man-modified
areas such as farmlands, grazing lands, urban lands etc. Any
ecosystem that is overused or misused loses its productivity and
gets degraded.
5

Grassland shola forest
The functional diversity: Functional diversity is that type of
biodiversity which is the study of different types of
chemical processes of species fir their survival on the land.
These processes include such as energy flow and cycling of
matter etc.
There are a large variety of functions being performed by
nature for the diversity. Each function has its own
importance and the decline of any of these functions can
lead to the imbalance of the biodiversity as well as the
ecosystem.
Energy flow Cycling of matter
6

Facts related to biodiversity (world)
• Total Land Area of Earth - 510,065,284 sq. km
• Forest Cover – 38.7 m. sq. km (26%)
• 40% of Global Forest Land is in South America, Africa and
South Asia.
• There are 5 million to 100 million species on earth.
• Only about 1.9 million species have been catalogued so far.
• There are 34 recognized “Hotspots” in the world.
• 44.4% of Global Plant species and 35.3% of Vertebrate
species are present in Hotspots.
7

Facts related to biodiversity (India)
• Total land area of India - 143 million. ha
• India occupies 2.47% of the World’s geographical area and has
only 1% of the forest
• India has 16.1% of world human population and 15.1% of cattle
population
• Forest Cover in India – 23.57 %
• India is sharing 12.53 % of world’s biodiversity
• India has 3.9 % of grasslands, 2.0 % of hot deserts, 4.1 m. ha of
wetland ecosystems.
• India is the 7th largest country in the world and one among the 17
mega diversity centers.
• India recorded:
> 45,000 + species of wild plants
> 89,000 + species of wild animals
> At least 320 species of wild relatives of crops have been
originated here.
• 1,39,000 species of plants, animals and microbes are recorded
• More than 4 lakh species are yet to be identified
• There are three mega centers of endemism and 26 micro centers
of endemism.
8

Plant & animal species in India & world
Species India World
• Bacteria 850 4000
• Viruses unknown 4000
• Algae 6500 40,000
• Fungi 14,500 72,000
• Lichens 2000 17,000
• Bryophyta 2850 16,000
• Pteridophyta 1100 13000
• Gymnosperms 64 750
• Angiosperms 17,500 250,000
• Insects 60,000 8,00000
• Mollusca 5000 100000
• Fishes 2,500 23,000
• Amphibians 190 4,520
• Reptiles 400 6,550
• Birds 1,175 8,400
• Mammals 872 4,231
9

Hotspots
• Endemism - (0.5% or 1500 species of the world’s 3 Lakh Plant
species as endemics should be present)
• Degree of Threat Hotspots of India – Four
1. Western Ghats
2. Eastern Himalayas
3. Indo-Burma region
4. Sunderland (Indonesia, Malaysia, parts of India especially
Nicobar Islands).
• Extinct - A species not definitely located in the wild and never
sighted even once in the last 50 years
•Threatened species - The term is used in conservation
context for species which are in one of the categories –
i) Endangered
ii) Vulnerable
iii) Rare
iv) Indeterminate
10

Biodiversity and balance of nature
•Tropical level: elimination of species from tropical level can
cause destruction of ecosystem as well as biodiversity.
•Complex ecosystem: in a complicated ecosystem, having
loss of one or more species do not cause any serious problem
because there alternative is available.
•Keystone species: loss or addition of species causes
detectable changes in biodiversity rates i.e. species make
unique contribution to ecosystem functioning.
•Niche complementary: difference among species in their
environment for different resources will cause complimentary
interactions so that a species could obtain more resources.
•Facilitation and mutualism: plants may also benefit from their
neighbors through amelioration of the physical and biotic
environment.
•Portfolio effect: species richness increases the temporal
stability of the entire community while the biomass is
stabilized.
•Insurance hypothesis: biodiversity buffers ecosystem against
environmental changes such as global warming.
11

Benefits from biodiversity
Consumptive value:
• Food/drink
• Fuel
• Medicine
• Batter crop varieties
• Industrial materials
Non consumptive value:
• Recreation
• Education & research
• Traditional value
Ecological services:
• Balance of nature
• Biological productivity
• Regulation of climate
• Degradation of waste
• Cleaning of air and water
• Cycling of nutrients
• Control of potential pests
and disease causing species
• Detoxification of soil and
sediments
• Stabilization of land against
erosion
• Carbon sequestration and
global climate change
• Maintenance of soil fertility
12

Importance of biodiversity
i) It represents the almost infinite variety of plant and animal life,
and the variety of the types of Earth's ecosystems that support
life as we know it.
ii) It enables humans to survive in what would otherwise result in
adverse conditions.
iii) Biodiversity is the very stuff that supports the evolution and
differentiation among the varying species. It's why cats are cats
and horses are horses and humans are humans.
iv) And, further, it is responsible for the differences among groups
within the larger species.
v) Energy from wind, water, sunlight, and coal heats our homes
and power all our appliances Decaying animal matter has, over
the centuries created the fossil fuels we use on a daily basis to
power the vehicles that make transportation relatively easy and
convenient.
vi) Without biodiversity we would be (if we existed at all) a
homogeneous population, with each of us having the same
vulnerabilities. This would mean that in case of an epidemic,
we would all be killed since there would be no biologic
differences that would enable some of us to survive and adapt.
vii) Much of our modern medicine is based on combinations of
biologically diverse substances isolated from various plants
(which we, therefore, label medicinal). Even before the rise of
modern medicine, ayurveda and unani systems of medicine
used various plants to achieve various results. Without those
plants, and the great variety of insects that pollinate and cross-
pollinate them, humans would be much more vulnerable to
disease.

viii) The biodiversity contained in the ecosystem provides forest
dwellers with all their daily needs- food, building material,
fodder, medicines and a variety of other products.
ix) Biodiversity also provides us with lumber, granite, and marble –
to name a few of the building materials much human habitation
depends upon – we would largely be without shelter.
x) Biodiversity provides a literal treasure trove of foods, from things
as common as wheat or corn to things as exotic as some of the
seafood used in sushi. Biodiversity sustains the bodies we live
in, and affects the lives we lead, and the societies we form.
xi) Many traditional societies have played an important role in
preserving their biodiversity. They value biodiversity as a part
of their livelihood as well as through cultural and religious
sentiments. Traditional agricultural societies have been growing
a great variety of crops which acts as an insurance against the
failure of one crop.
xii) Modern agricultural practices on the other hand depend largely
on monoculture with lot of importance given to cash crops for
national and international markets. This has resulted in local
food shortages, unemployment, landlessness and increased
vulnerability to drought.
xiii) Apart from the economic importance of conserving biodiversity,
there are several cultural, moral and ethical values which are
associated with the sanctity of all forms of life.
xiv) Biodiversity also makes irreplaceable contribution to our
aesthetics, imagination and creativity. It forms an integral part
of tourism in the world. People all over the world visit national
parks, sanctuaries and resorts to recreate themselves. It not
only helps them to de-stress but also helps them to feel one
with nature.

Threats to biodiversity
• Deforestation and overgrazing
• Habitat destruction and fragmentation of the area.
• Poaching and hunting for flesh, fur, skin, horn, nail and
recreation.
• Forest fires including smoking in the woods.
• Over-exploitation of the resources.
• Natural calamities like floods, high wind velocities,
earthquakes, etc.
• Pollution of various kinds and release of toxic substances.
• Soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients.
• Population pressure and unequal distribution of the
resources
• Agricultural expansion
• Spreading urbanization and establishment of industries.
• Construction of hydro-electric power projects
• Climatic changes like depletion of ozone, global warming,
increased concentration of carbon dioxide, etc.
• Mining activities and quarrying.
• Lack of awareness about biodiversity and its importance.

Impact of loss of biodiversity
The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we understand,
and many that we do not. It is apparent that mankind is willing to
sustain a great deal of biodiversity loss if there are concomitant benefits
to society; we hope they are net benefits. In many cases, the benefits
seem to accrue to a few individuals only, with net societal loss.
However, as noted below, it is extremely difficult to estimate the future
costs of losses in biodiversity, or of environmental damage. As stated
by Tilman (2000), “The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its
biodiversity, only if humans have the prescience to do so. This will
occur, it seems, only if we realize the extent to which we use
biodiversity.”
Losses in biodiversity in rainforests cause significant changes in
ecosystem functioning. About ecosystem functioning in tropical rain
forests we know very little, but we do know that ecosystems are
affected by changes in the number and kinds of species which they
contain, an idea originally conceived by Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace. Intact ecosystems function best, since the organisms
composing them are specialized to function in that ecosystem to
capture, transfer, utilize and, ultimately, lose both energy and nutrients.
The particular species making up an ecosystem determine its
productivity, they affect nutrient cycles and soil contents, and they
influence environmental conditions such as water cycles, weather
patterns, climate and other no-biotic aspects.

One important fact that is often forgotten is that ecosystems are, as it
were, living structures. They are constantly changing and subject to
evolution, so that at various times they will be composed of different
organisms. According to pollen data and information gathered from
fossil bones, few modern ecosystems are the same as they were
10,000 years ago. They originate bit by bit as the environment changes,
and as species become extinct or shift their geographical range or their
anatomy or behavior.
As we continue to lose species at a rapid rate, we must discover which
losses will have the most deleterious consequences on ecosystems. At
present, we know little, and what we do have is information on short-
term, small-scale experimental plots. We need to know more, much
more. It is vital to realize, then, that biodiversity does not mean simply
the number and kinds of living organisms present.
a. Species richness: Most of the research into the interrelationships
between biodiversity and ecosystem functions has been done on
plants, which affect soil processes, decomposition, water retention and
many other ecosystem functions. Higher plant diversity does not appear
to have any great effect on soil processes such as decomposition rates,
but does affect productivity and enhances the stability of ecosystem
processes. productivity. Plots with greater numbers of species had a
greater above- and below-ground plant biomass, higher rates of There
are suggestions that loss of species richness may affect many
ecosystem processes (nutrient cycling, increased uptake of carbon, and

others) in addition to productivity. However, we have little evidence for
this as yet, and there seems to be no straightforward relationship
between species diversity and many other ecosystem functions
b. Species composition: The array of species in an ecosystem (species
composition) must also be important to its function. Certain species will
have a greater influence than others, particularly if they are among
those groups which capture and transfer energy or nutrients, or which
affect environmental conditions regulating these processes. Hawaiian
forests have been disrupted by the introduction of a nitrogen-fixing
tree, Myrica faya, which has led to a great increase in nitrogen supply
and altered greatly the properties of these forests. In another case in
Hawaii, nonnative grasses were introduced to improve cattle grazing,
but since these grasses are flammable, they have caused a 300-fold
increase in fires in the forests into which they spread. Most woody
plants are damaged or destroyed by fires, while grasses generally
are not, since their deep root systems are maintained even when the
superficial portions of the plant are lost. This in turn reduces
evapotranspiration and rainfall. If tropical forest trees are removed and
their place is taken by savannah grasses, the evapotranspiration which
is so conspicuous a feature of tropical rainforests would be severely
curtailed, decreasing rainfall (and eliminating the possibility of forest
regeneration or even survival of remnants). There is some support for
the idea that many species are “redundant”; that is, several species
play equivalent roles in an ecosystem. Thus, one or more of these

equivalent species could be lost without irretrievably damaging the
ecosystem. But, in general, each loss of species will lead to
impoverishment of the system. Davidson (2000) uses the metaphor of
threads being pulled from a tapestry, until finally it becomes threadbare,
and the grand design is lost.
c. Species interactions: Species interactions are perhaps the most
important aspect of ecosystem functioning. Species are not just “there,”
they are interacting at some level with all the other organisms in the
system, forming highly complex interlocking systems. They compete,
they parasitize, they cooperate, they prey, and they provide food or
shelter. In these interactions they also modify the nonbiological aspects
of the ecosystem: the availability of nutrients, energy sources (such as
sunlight), water, nitrogen (nitrogen-fixing organisms) and the like.
I) Mutualistic interactions: These interactions are essential in
ecosystems. One example is the mycorrhizal associations between
fungi and the roots of plants, or the decomposition of organic material in
the soil by microorganisms, each species of which may contribute
different enzymes to the decay process. The organic compounds thus
released are taken up by forest plants, which provide the organic matter
for the next cycle.
ii) Trophic interactions: Ecosystem functions depend greatly upon
trophic interactions among species within that system. For instance, if
carnivores are removed, prey species populations may grow
tremendously, leading to a series of changes in the system.

d. Ecosystem stability: the ”diversity-stability hypothesis”: The idea
behind this hypothesis is that biodiversity acts as a stabilizing factor in
ecosystems, and that therefore highly diverse ecosystems can act to
reduce the impact of changes in the environment. Since humans are
now altering so many environmental variables – atmospheric gases,
surface temperatures, water quality – it behooves us to maintain as
many areas with high biodiversity as possible. The more species, the
more likely that at least some will remain after environmental changes
occur. Some species may also be capable of mitigating the effects of
the changes.

Conservation of biodiversity
The following two strategies are used for conservation of
biodiversity as well as wildlife:
(a) In-situ conservation,
(b) Ex-situ conservation.

In-situ conservation:
The in-situ conservation, emphasis protection of the ecosystem of
the original habitats or natural environment. The in-situ approach
includes protection of a group of typical ecosystem through a
network of protected areas on land or sea. These are managed
through state r other effective agencies. India has 381 protected
areas, covering about 4.7% of land surface. The biosphere
reserves, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are included in the
protected areas.
(a) National park: a national park is an area which is strictly
reserved for the betterment of wildlife and where
human activities like forestry, grazing or cultivation
are not permitted.
Examples: 1. Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand)
2. Sunderbans (west Bengal)
3. Dudhva (Uttar Pradesh)
4. Tadoba (Maharashtra)
(b) Wildlife sanctuaries: a wildlife sanctuary is a protected area
that is reserved for the conservation of the only of wildlife animals
and plant species. Human activities like harvesting of timber,
collection of minor forest products and private ownership rights are
allowed.
Examples: 1. Periyar (Kerala)
2. Ranipur (Uttar Pradesh)
3. Chilka lake (Orissa)
4. Sariska (Rajasthan)

Biosphere reserves: a biosphere reserve is a special area of land
or coastal environment in which multiple use of land is permitted by
dividing it into certain zones. The natural or core zone consists of
an undisturbed and legally protected ecosystem.
Ex-situ conservation:
Sometimes the population of species may decline or many become
extinct due to genetic or environmental factors such as inbreeding,
habitat loss, disease and over-exploitation. In such cases in-situ
conservation may not prove to be effective and a species can be
protected from becoming extinct only through maintaining
individuals in artificial conditions under human care. Such
measures are included under ex-situ conservation.
Generally, botanical gardens, zoos, aquariums, parks, agricultural
research centres, forest research centres, etc., are the artificial
habitats for ex-situ conservation.
Beside these measures, gene, pollen, seed, seedling, tissue
culture and DNA banks are also included in these strategies. Seed,

gene banks are the easiest ways to store germplasm of wild and
cultivated plants at low temperature in cold rooms and by cryo-
preservation.
In order to protect global biodiversity and encourage the study
and management of endangered species, the international union
for the conservation of nature and natural resources (IUCN) and
the world conservation monitoring centre (WCMC) maintain a
global list of endangered and vulnerable animal species called the
red list.
Conservation measures:
i) Maintenance of the integrity of the habitat and improvement
of habitat in productivity and quality for the desired species
to grow and reproduce well.
ii) Prevention and control of forest fires. Burning of grasslands
has to be controlled. By controlling the forest fire, protection
can be given to wildlife.
iii) Excessive cutting should be eliminated and only mature trees
should be harvested. New seedlings should replace the
harvested trees.
iv) Fragmentation of the forest area or wildlife habitat, which
decreases the biological diversity (both genetic diversity and
ecological diversity), should be minimized.
v) Measures to check the velocity of wind in deserted areas,
planting 'wind breaks' across the direction of wind is helpful.
Trees and shrubs may be planted in several rows to check
the blowing away of the fertile top soil, which determines the
vegetation growth.
vi) One should not smoke in the woods. Camps fire and trash
fires should be carefully tended and thoroughly extinguished.
vii) Grasses such as Cynodon dactylon are utilized as erosion
resisting plants. Conservation of many such types of grasses

helps in improving the soil fertility of the region for luxuriant
growth of the plants.
viii) Reforestation in degraded forest and agricultural wastelands
with suitable strains of tree species, which are viable,
genetically superior and disease resistant.
ix) Establishment and maintenance of 'germplasm banks' of wild
species for future genetic improvement and breeding
program.
x) The maintenance and preservation of germplasm of
vegetative propagated species is often a difficult task. Hence
to conserve this ‘gene pool’ development of tissues culture
techniques should be greatly emphasized.
xi) Improvement of the heredity of trees and proper adoption of
breeding techniques.
xii) The Management of natural forests, which will ensure future
productivity and environmental stability, should be practiced.
xiii) If the principles and procedures of "Social Forestry" are
followed, the stress on the exploitation of renewable forest
resources can be minimized.
xiv) Conservation of endangered and endemic species in natural
forests, which are the “guardians of diversity”, should be
given prime importance.
xv) Proper utilization and management of non-wood based
resources and establishment of “Energy Plantations".
xvi) Implementation of effective and scientific methods to
minimize the pollution of water, soil and air to ensure high
productivity of the biomass in this region. Prevention of
water pollution will protect the aquatic animal life.
xvii) Improper land degradation due to mining activities should be
stopped.
xviii)Efforts should be intensified to curb the destructive activities
of poachers.
xix) Stabilization of water levels in pools, ponds and lakes should
be undertaken so as to prevent seasonal destruction of
aquatic life through evaporation.
xx) Development of renewable resources in an area according to
the need of organisms in the same area.

Conclusion
Biodiversity is our life. If the biodiversity got lost at this rate then
in near future, the survival of human being will be threatened.
So, it is our moral duty to conserve biodiversity as well as the
environment. Long term maintenance of species and their
management requires co-operative efforts across entire
landscapes.
Biodiversity should be dealt with at scale of habitats or
ecosystems rather than at species level.
International day of biological diversity – may 22

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