Children in middle childhood experience significant physical and cognitive development. Physically, they grow taller and gain weight each year. Cognitively, they progress from concrete to more abstract thought and gain logical reasoning abilities. Socially, they form close friendships and develop a sense of self through comparisons to peers. However, issues like bullying, obesity, and low self-esteem can negatively impact development during these years.

1. Life Span DevelopmentSpring 2010PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOODChapter 9SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOODChapter 10

2. The Middle Childhood YearsPhysical DevelopmentChanges in Height and WeightChildren in elementary school grow 2-3 inches per year (on average)This is the only time throughout the lifespan when girls (on average) are taller than boysGirls and boys gain approximately 5-7 pounds per yearWeight redistributed, bodies more muscular and strength increasesNutritionNutrition does not affect size only, also affects:Social and emotional functioning – proper nutritional leads to more involvement with peers, more positive emotion, higher energy levels and less anxiety

3. Childhood ObesityObesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average for a person of a given age and height.Obese children and adolescents are at risk for health problems during their youth and as adults. For example, during their youth, obese children and adolescents are more likely to have risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease (such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes) than are other children and adolescents.Obesity is caused by a combination of genetic and social characteristics, as well as diet.Adopted children tend to have weights and body types more similar to biological parents that adoptive parents.What social factors can lead to obesity??

4. Concrete OperationsAges 7-12 (approximately). During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. Ex: “Conservation problem” – children at this age can use cognitive and logical processes to answer this correctly – no longer go by appearance

5. Cognitive advancementsLogic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logicThis involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that 3+5 = 8, 5+ 3 = 8 and 8-3 = 5.

6. Education in Middle ChildhoodVirtually all children in the United States are entitled to receive a free education through the 12th grade.According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, Individuals classified with a disaibilty by the Committee on Special Education or under Section 504 of The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are entitled to receive a free and appropriate education, sometimes until the age of 21.An appropriate education may comprise education in regular classes, education in regular classes with the use of related aids and services, or special education and related services in separate classrooms for all or portions of the school day. Special education may include specially designed instruction in classrooms, at home, or in private or public institutions, and may be accompanied by related services such as speech therapy, occupational and physical therapy, psychological counseling, and medical diagnostic services necessary to the child’s education.

7. Measuring IQIntelligence is defined as the capacity to understand the world, to think rationally, and using resources effectivelyThere are currently several standardized intelligence testsThese modern tests are rooted in the work of Binet.Binet linked intelligence with success in schoolBinet linked each intelligence test score with a mental age6-yr old – test score of 3030 = average score of 10 year olds6-yr old’s mental age would be 10 yearsIQ score = (MA/CA) x 100

8. Modern IQ testingStanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Ed:Began as American revision of Binet’s original testThe test consists of a series of items that vary according to the person’s ageWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Ed (WISC-IV):Separate verbal and nonverbal performance skillsKaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Ed:Children are tested on their ability to integrate different types of stimuli simultaneously and use step-by-step thinking

9. What IQ tests don’t tell…The concept that intelligence is unidimensional is currently disputed by many theoristsMany developmentalists support two different kinds of intelligence:Fluid intelligence – reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning and memoryCrystallized intelligence – accumulation of information, skills and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situationsOther theorists suggest an even greater number of distinct types of intelligence, which can be independent of one another

10. Below and Above the NormMental Retardation: According to the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), Mental Retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning as well as adaptive behavior (conceptual, social and practical skills)Mild retardation: IQ scores of 50 or 55 - 70Moderate retardation: IQ scores of 35 or 40 – 50 or 55 Severe retardation: IQ scores of 20 or 25 – 35 or 40Profound retardation: IQ scores fall below 20 or 25The Gifted and Talented: Children who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capability or specific academic fields.

11. Psychosocial Development in Middle ChildhoodIndustry-versus-inferiority stageAge 6-12Children are faced with the complexities of the modern worldThey not only focus on mastering the academic work they are presented with, they are also making a place for themselves in the social worldSuccess at this stage is accomplished by proficiency at tasks and a growing sense of competenceDifficulties may lead to feeling inadequate and withdrawing from academic pursuits as well as interactions with peers.

12. Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem is an individual’s overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation. Self-concept reflects beliefs about the self (e,g, I am good at math) whereas self-esteem is emotionally-oriented (e.g. no one likes me)Self-esteem develops in many important ways during Middle Childhood.Children increasingly compare themselves to othersAs they do this, they assess how they measure up to society’s standardsChildren are developing their own standardsFor most children, self-esteem increases during middle childhoodChildren with low self-esteem may become enmeshed in a cycle of failure that is difficult to break

13. Building Friendship in Middle ChildhoodFriendships influence children’s development in many ways…Friends provide information about the world and other peopleFriends provide emotional support and help kids handle stressFriends teach children how to manage and control their emotionsFriends teach about communication with othersFriends foster intellectual growthFriends allow children to practice relationship skills

14. Stages of FriendshipAccording to William Damon, children’s friendships go through three stages:Stage 1 (ages 4-7)Children see friends as others who they spend most of their time withThey see friends as children they share toys and other activities withThey do not take personal traits into account

15. Stages of FriendshipStage 2 (ages 8-10)Children now begin to consider personal traits in selecting friendsFriends are viewed in terms of the rewards they provideThe centerpiece of friendship is mutual trustStage 3 (ages 11-15)Friendships have become based on intimacy and loyaltyFriendships involve psychological closeness, mutual disclosure, and exclusivityThis stage will be discussed in further detail during discussion of adolescence

16. BullyingWhat is bullying?Bullying is when someone hurts or scares another person on purpose and the person being bullied has a hard time defending himself or herself. Usually, bullying happens over and over. Bullying can be defined as:Punching, shoving and other acts that hurt people physically Spreading bad rumors about people Keeping certain people out of a "group" Teasing people in a mean way Getting certain people to "gang up" on others **According to the National Association of School Psychologists, 160,000 U.S. schoolchildren stay home from school each day because they are afraid of being bullied**

17. CyberbulliesBullying also can happen on-line or electronically. cyber bullying is when children or teens bully each other using the Internet, mobile phones or other cyber technology. This can include:Sending mean text, e-mail, or instant messages; Posting nasty pictures, doctored photos or messages about others in blogs or on Web sites; Using someone else's user name to spread rumors or lies about someone.

18. Why kids bullyApproximately 10-15% of students bully at one time or anotherCharacteristics of bullies:Approximately 50% of bullies come from abusive homesThey are exposed to media (TV shows, Video Games) that contain violenceThey may try to lie their way out of accepting responsibility when they are caughtThey show little (if any) remorse for their victimsSome of the reasons why kids bully:They see others doing it It's what you do if you want to hang out with the right crowd (to become popular) It makes them feel, stronger, smarter, or better than the person they are bullying It prevents others from bullying them

19. Long-term effectsIt can mess up a kid's future. Young people who bully are more likely than those who don't bully to skip school and drop out of school. They are also more likely to smoke, drink alcohol and get into fights (Nansel et al, 2003; Olweus, 1993).It scares some people so much that they skip school. As many as 160,000 students may stay home on any given day because they're afraid of being bullied (Pollack, 1998).It can lead to huge problems later in life. Children who bully are more likely to get into fights, vandalize property, and drop out of school. Approximately 60% of boys who were bullies in middle school had at least one criminal conviction by the age of 24 (Olweus, 1993).

20. The Family EnvironmentLast few decades – changing in the structure of a “typical family”↑ in # of families with 2 parents working↑ in divorce rate↑ in # of single-parent familiesOne of the biggest challenges of middle childhood – increasing independenceChildren move from being completely controlled by their parents to increasingly controlling their own livesCoregulation – A period during which parent and child jointly control the child’s behavior.

21. Effects of family environmentBoth parents working outside of the home – what is the impact on the children?In most cases, children do very wellThe parents’ schedule seems less important than other factors… Children have best adjustment when parents are:LovingSensitive to their children’s needsProviding appropriate substitute care

22. Effects of family environmentChildren who are home alone:Self-care children are children who let themselves into their homes after school and wait alone until their caretakers return from work (“latchkey kids”)Some children report negative experiences while at home alone (such as loneliness)Alone time at home is viewed as less detrimental than “hanging out” unsupervised with peersThis is an opportunity for enhanced independence and competence, as well as an opportunity for “down time”Many self-care children develop strong self-esteem as a result of the opportunity to take care of homework, personal projects, and contribute to the house

23. Effects of family environmentDivorceOnly about 50% of children will grow up with married parents living in the same homeOther family dynamics – single-parent, stepparents, raised by grandparents, living with other relatives, or foster careImpact of divorce?Age of children at the time of divorce is an important factorDuring the early stages of middle childhood, children tend to blame themselves for the divorceBy the age of 10, children feel pressure to choose sides and therefore may have divided loyaltyChildren and parents take time to adjust – typically 6 months to 2 yearsMost children live with their mothers after divorceParent-child relationships are strained due to children being “caught in the middle”

24. Effects of family environmentSingle-parent familiesApproximately 25% of children under the age of 18 in the U.S. live in a single-parent householdIn rare cases, this situation is a result of deathIn most cases, there either was never a spouse, parents have divorced, or one parent has been absentImpact of single-parent family depends on a number of factors:Was 2nd parent present earlier?What is the socioeconomic status of the single parent?Who is caring for the child while single parent is working?

25. Effects of family environmentMultigenerational Families:Children, parents and grandparents living togetherThis can be a rich living experience, with multiple levels of support, both emotionally and financiallyHowever, there is often conflict between the adults, who may struggle in sharing the role of disciplinarian

26. Effects of family environmentBlended Families:The aftermath of divorce often results in at least one parent remarrying“Blended families” refers to a remarried couple who has at least one stepchild living with them17% of all children in the U.S. living in a blended familyRole ambiguity often occurs – roles and expectations for family members are unclear:Children may be uncertain about their responsibilitiesChildren may be unsure of how to act towards stepparents or stepsiblingsChildren may have to decide which family to spend a holiday withChildren may get conflicting advice from biological parent and stepparent