1. The immune system protects the body through innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate defense while adaptive immunity provides long-term protection through immune memory.
2. Edward Jenner discovered vaccination by observing that milkmaids who recovered from cowpox did not get smallpox. His experiment inoculating cowpox material into a boy demonstrated that vaccination could induce immunity.
3. The immune system consists of organs, cells, and soluble factors that work together to recognize and eliminate pathogens. Primary lymphoid organs generate immune cells while secondary lymphoid organs activate immune responses.
The document discusses various topics related to human immunity, including:
1. It describes the two main types of immunity - innate (nonspecific) immunity which acts as the first line of defense, and acquired (specific) immunity which is adaptive and involves lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells.
2. Within acquired immunity, it distinguishes between natural active immunity gained from infection and artificial active immunity gained from vaccines.
3. The two main branches of acquired immunity are humoral immunity involving antibodies, and cell-mediated immunity involving T cells that recognize antigens on cell surfaces.
4. It provides details on the structure and functions of the main antibody classes - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD
Difference between innate and adaptive immunitykamilKhan63
The document compares innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate protection and is nonspecific, responding to any pathogen. It involves physical barriers, phagocytes, and the complement system. Adaptive immunity provides acquired, antigen-specific protection through lymphocytes and memory cells. It responds more slowly but is more effective. Adaptive immunity is developed after exposure while innate immunity is present from birth.
There are two main types of immunity: innate immunity which is non-specific and provides immediate protection; and acquired immunity which is adaptive and provides long-term protection. Acquired immunity can be naturally acquired through exposure to antigens or artificially acquired through vaccination. It can also be actively acquired through the immune system producing its own antibodies and memory cells, or passively acquired through transfer of antibodies from mother to child or through injection. The immune system protects the body through humoral immunity using antibodies, and cellular immunity using T cells to attack infected cells.
Vaccines provide active acquired immunity against diseases. They contain weakened or killed forms of microbes or their components that stimulate the immune system to recognize and destroy the microbe if encountered in the future. There are three main routes of administration: intradermal, oral, and intranasal. When administered, vaccines are phagocytosed by antigen presenting cells like dendritic cells, which activate T and B cells. Activated B cells become either antibody producing plasma cells or memory B cells. Common human vaccines include those for human papillomavirus, polio, measles, diabetes, hepatitis B, rabies, and various insulins.
Adjuvants are substances that help enhance and modulate the immune response to antigens and vaccines. They allow for lower doses of antigens and improve vaccine efficacy in immunocompromised individuals. The main types of adjuvants are alum, which causes slow antigen release and recruitment of immune cells, and Freund's adjuvants, which contain emulsified antigens and mycobacteria. Adjuvants work by prolonging the presence of antigens, activating macrophages, and stimulating inflammation and innate immune receptors to induce adaptive immunity. However, adjuvants can also cause local reactions like injection site pain or swelling and systemic issues like immunosuppression or organ toxicity.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccines. It discusses key events like Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and the eradication of smallpox. It describes different types of vaccines including live-attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and DNA vaccines. The mechanisms of how vaccines work and produce immunity are also explained. The document traces the evolution of vaccines from whole organism approaches to modern techniques like recombinant DNA technology.
This document discusses viral infection and the immune response. It covers the basic structure of viruses, how they replicate within host cells, and the effects on host cells. It also summarizes innate immune responses like interferons and natural killer cells that control early viral infection. The adaptive immune response of antibodies and cytotoxic T cells that provide long-term immunity is also covered. Finally, it discusses how viruses evade these immune responses through mechanisms like antigenic variation, incorporation into the host genome, and disruption of immune signaling pathways.
The document discusses various topics related to human immunity, including:
1. It describes the two main types of immunity - innate (nonspecific) immunity which acts as the first line of defense, and acquired (specific) immunity which is adaptive and involves lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells.
2. Within acquired immunity, it distinguishes between natural active immunity gained from infection and artificial active immunity gained from vaccines.
3. The two main branches of acquired immunity are humoral immunity involving antibodies, and cell-mediated immunity involving T cells that recognize antigens on cell surfaces.
4. It provides details on the structure and functions of the main antibody classes - IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD
Difference between innate and adaptive immunitykamilKhan63
The document compares innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate protection and is nonspecific, responding to any pathogen. It involves physical barriers, phagocytes, and the complement system. Adaptive immunity provides acquired, antigen-specific protection through lymphocytes and memory cells. It responds more slowly but is more effective. Adaptive immunity is developed after exposure while innate immunity is present from birth.
There are two main types of immunity: innate immunity which is non-specific and provides immediate protection; and acquired immunity which is adaptive and provides long-term protection. Acquired immunity can be naturally acquired through exposure to antigens or artificially acquired through vaccination. It can also be actively acquired through the immune system producing its own antibodies and memory cells, or passively acquired through transfer of antibodies from mother to child or through injection. The immune system protects the body through humoral immunity using antibodies, and cellular immunity using T cells to attack infected cells.
Vaccines provide active acquired immunity against diseases. They contain weakened or killed forms of microbes or their components that stimulate the immune system to recognize and destroy the microbe if encountered in the future. There are three main routes of administration: intradermal, oral, and intranasal. When administered, vaccines are phagocytosed by antigen presenting cells like dendritic cells, which activate T and B cells. Activated B cells become either antibody producing plasma cells or memory B cells. Common human vaccines include those for human papillomavirus, polio, measles, diabetes, hepatitis B, rabies, and various insulins.
Adjuvants are substances that help enhance and modulate the immune response to antigens and vaccines. They allow for lower doses of antigens and improve vaccine efficacy in immunocompromised individuals. The main types of adjuvants are alum, which causes slow antigen release and recruitment of immune cells, and Freund's adjuvants, which contain emulsified antigens and mycobacteria. Adjuvants work by prolonging the presence of antigens, activating macrophages, and stimulating inflammation and innate immune receptors to induce adaptive immunity. However, adjuvants can also cause local reactions like injection site pain or swelling and systemic issues like immunosuppression or organ toxicity.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccines. It discusses key events like Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and the eradication of smallpox. It describes different types of vaccines including live-attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and DNA vaccines. The mechanisms of how vaccines work and produce immunity are also explained. The document traces the evolution of vaccines from whole organism approaches to modern techniques like recombinant DNA technology.
This document discusses viral infection and the immune response. It covers the basic structure of viruses, how they replicate within host cells, and the effects on host cells. It also summarizes innate immune responses like interferons and natural killer cells that control early viral infection. The adaptive immune response of antibodies and cytotoxic T cells that provide long-term immunity is also covered. Finally, it discusses how viruses evade these immune responses through mechanisms like antigenic variation, incorporation into the host genome, and disruption of immune signaling pathways.
This document defines key terms related to antigens and the immune response. It discusses how antigens stimulate an immune response by interacting with antibodies and T cells. There are different types of antigens including exogenous antigens that enter the body from outside, endogenous antigens generated inside cells, autoantigens that are recognized by the immune system in autoimmune diseases, and tumor antigens expressed by cancer cells. The document also describes properties of antigens like immunogenicity and antigenicity, and characteristics of antigenic epitopes recognized by B cells and T cells. It classifies antigens as thymus-dependent or -independent and discusses conventional antigens, superantigens, and adjuvants that enhance immune responses.
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
This document provides an overview of vaccination, including:
- A brief history of vaccination from early attempts in China to Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine.
- An introduction defining vaccines and their ability to produce immunity against diseases.
- Descriptions of the different types of vaccines including live, attenuated, inactivated, subunit, conjugate, and recombinant vaccines.
Antigen
Antigen is a substance which binds specifically with the products (antibodies, T-cells) of the immune system.
Its ability to bind with antibodies is called antigenicity.
Immunogen
It is a substance which produces an immune response as well as binds to its products.
So, immunogen is an antigen as well but antigen need not be immunogen.
The property of producing an immune response is called immunogenicity.
Active and passive immunity can be acquired naturally through infection or artificially through vaccination. Active immunity develops when the body produces its own antibodies and memory cells in response to an antigen, while passive immunity involves the transfer of ready-made antibodies from another. Vaccinations provide active immunity by exposing the immune system to an antigen without causing disease, allowing it to mount a protective memory response upon future exposure. Different types of vaccines include live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, cellular fraction, and recombinant vaccines, which are administered through various routes to safely induce protective immunity.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and its functions. The immune system protects the body from infection through innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate defense against pathogens while adaptive immunity involves immune cells that develop memory to mount stronger responses against specific pathogens. When not functioning properly, the immune system can lead to autoimmune diseases, allergies, and cancer.
This document discusses different types of vaccines and their production. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated vaccines containing live microorganisms that cause limited infection, killed/inactivated vaccines containing dead microorganisms, recombinant vaccines produced using DNA technology, DNA vaccines where DNA is injected directly, and cocktail vaccines containing multiple vaccines. Vaccines are produced by growing and attenuating microorganisms, purifying antigens, adding adjuvants, stabilizers and preservatives, and formulating the final vaccine preparation. Some risks associated with vaccines include the vaccine itself causing illness, overstimulating the immune system, and allergic reactions to vaccine components.
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to specific antigens. They have a variable region that binds to antigens and a constant region that interacts with other immune system components. The five main classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, which differ in structure and function. Antibodies play a key role in humoral immunity by neutralizing pathogens, agglutinating foreign cells, and activating the complement system and effector cells of the immune system.
This document discusses different types of immunity. It describes innate or natural immunity which individuals are born with and includes species, racial, and individual immunity. Innate immunity acts as the first line of defense and is provided by the skin, mucous membranes, and phagocytic cells. Acquired or adaptive immunity develops after exposure to pathogens and includes both active and passive immunity. Acquired immunity has humoral components involving antibodies and cellular components involving T cells. Herd immunity is also discussed, where a community's immunity protects even unvaccinated individuals when a high percentage of the population is immune.
This document discusses adjuvants and their role in vaccines. It provides an overview of the current state and future directions of adjuvant development. Some key points include:
- Adjuvants are needed to improve vaccine efficacy and induce stronger immune responses. However, developing new adjuvants faces challenges related to safety, reactogenicity, and regulatory approval.
- Many existing and candidate adjuvants can induce local or systemic adverse effects. Finding the right balance between potency and reactogenicity is an ongoing challenge.
- Various adjuvant types are classified based on their source or mechanism of action, including oil emulsions, saponins, bacterial components, liposomes, carbohydrates, aluminum salts, and polymeric microspheres.
This document discusses antigens and their classification. It defines antigens as substances that can induce an immune response. Antigens are classified as either exogenous (external) or endogenous (internal) antigens. Exogenous antigens enter the body from the external environment, while endogenous antigens are further divided into xeno-genic, allogenic, and autologous antigens based on their origin. The document also discusses the properties of immunogens and antigens, as well as factors that contribute to immunogenicity.
This document provides information on types of antigens and factors that determine antigenicity. It discusses different types of antigens, including exogenous, endogenous, autoantigens, and alloantigens. It also covers the chemical nature of antigens, including proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids. Additionally, it examines factors that influence immunogenicity, such as foreignness, molecular size, chemical nature, physical form, antigen specificity, and others. Superantigens are also discussed as a class of antigens that cause non-specific polyclonal activation of T-cells.
Vaccination involves stimulating immunity in the human body against specific diseases using modified or killed microorganisms. There are three main types of vaccines: killed vaccines using normal infections; attenuated vaccines using live but weakened virus particles; and subunit vaccines using purified virus components. Vaccination reduces susceptibility to infection, can slow or stop the spread of disease, and helps protect not only those vaccinated but also the wider community. However, some viruses mutate rapidly requiring new vaccines, vaccination involves costs and trained professionals, and both mild and severe side effects can occasionally occur.
Isotypes refer to the different classes of antibodies that are determined by variations in the heavy chain constant region. Minor differences in light and heavy chain amino acid sequences lead to subclasses within each isotype. Allotypes are allelic variations of the same isotype that differ in a few residues of one chain. Idiotypes are the unique antigenic determinants within the variable regions of individual antibody molecules that allow antibodies to recognize different epitopes.
This document summarizes different types of immunity. It describes passive immunity as the transfer of antibodies from one individual to another, providing short-term protection but no immunological memory. Active immunity is induced within an individual through exposure to an antigen, resulting in long-lasting immunological memory. Immunity can be naturally acquired through exposure to pathogens or artificially acquired through vaccination. Vaccines include inactivated, live attenuated, toxoid, and subunit vaccines.
This document provides an overview of immunity, including definitions, classifications, and mechanisms. It discusses innate immunity, which is present at birth, and acquired immunity, which develops after birth through active or passive transfer. Innate immunity involves nonspecific defenses like epithelial barriers, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation, and phagocytes. Acquired immunity can be active, developing from natural infection or vaccination, or passive, through maternal antibody transfer or administration of antiserum. The document also briefly mentions local immunity at infection sites and herd immunity within communities.
The document discusses different types of vaccines and their characteristics. It describes live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live microbes to elicit strong immunity. Inactivated vaccines use killed microbes and require multiple doses to maintain immunity. Subunit vaccines contain only antigens of microbes. Toxoid vaccines contain inactivated toxins. Conjugate vaccines link sugar antigens to proteins. DNA and recombinant vaccines use genetic material from microbes. The document provides examples and explanations of each vaccine type.
History of immunology grew out of the observation that individuals who have recovered from certain infectious diseases were thereafter protected from the disease.
Immunology (Innate and adaptive immune systems) (ANTIGENS (Ag)) Amany Elsayed
The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It defines key terms like immunity, the immune system, and immune response. It describes the two main branches of the immune system: innate (natural) immunity and adaptive (acquired) immunity. The innate system provides non-specific resistance and is the body's first line of defense. The adaptive system provides antigen-specific immunity and develops memory to enhance the response. The document also outlines the major cells involved in the immune response, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. It discusses the functions of phagocytic cells in phagocytosis and intracellular/extracellular killing of pathogens.
Basic immunology and hypersensitive disorders bebaBISRATGETACHEWMD
This document provides an overview of basic immunology and hypersensitivity disorders. It describes the innate and adaptive immune systems, including the cells involved such as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. It discusses the mechanisms of cell-mediated and humoral immunity. It also provides details on antimicrobial peptides, complement system, antigen presentation and the roles of cytokines in immune responses.
This document defines key terms related to antigens and the immune response. It discusses how antigens stimulate an immune response by interacting with antibodies and T cells. There are different types of antigens including exogenous antigens that enter the body from outside, endogenous antigens generated inside cells, autoantigens that are recognized by the immune system in autoimmune diseases, and tumor antigens expressed by cancer cells. The document also describes properties of antigens like immunogenicity and antigenicity, and characteristics of antigenic epitopes recognized by B cells and T cells. It classifies antigens as thymus-dependent or -independent and discusses conventional antigens, superantigens, and adjuvants that enhance immune responses.
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
This document provides an overview of vaccination, including:
- A brief history of vaccination from early attempts in China to Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine.
- An introduction defining vaccines and their ability to produce immunity against diseases.
- Descriptions of the different types of vaccines including live, attenuated, inactivated, subunit, conjugate, and recombinant vaccines.
Antigen
Antigen is a substance which binds specifically with the products (antibodies, T-cells) of the immune system.
Its ability to bind with antibodies is called antigenicity.
Immunogen
It is a substance which produces an immune response as well as binds to its products.
So, immunogen is an antigen as well but antigen need not be immunogen.
The property of producing an immune response is called immunogenicity.
Active and passive immunity can be acquired naturally through infection or artificially through vaccination. Active immunity develops when the body produces its own antibodies and memory cells in response to an antigen, while passive immunity involves the transfer of ready-made antibodies from another. Vaccinations provide active immunity by exposing the immune system to an antigen without causing disease, allowing it to mount a protective memory response upon future exposure. Different types of vaccines include live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, cellular fraction, and recombinant vaccines, which are administered through various routes to safely induce protective immunity.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and its functions. The immune system protects the body from infection through innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate defense against pathogens while adaptive immunity involves immune cells that develop memory to mount stronger responses against specific pathogens. When not functioning properly, the immune system can lead to autoimmune diseases, allergies, and cancer.
This document discusses different types of vaccines and their production. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated vaccines containing live microorganisms that cause limited infection, killed/inactivated vaccines containing dead microorganisms, recombinant vaccines produced using DNA technology, DNA vaccines where DNA is injected directly, and cocktail vaccines containing multiple vaccines. Vaccines are produced by growing and attenuating microorganisms, purifying antigens, adding adjuvants, stabilizers and preservatives, and formulating the final vaccine preparation. Some risks associated with vaccines include the vaccine itself causing illness, overstimulating the immune system, and allergic reactions to vaccine components.
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to specific antigens. They have a variable region that binds to antigens and a constant region that interacts with other immune system components. The five main classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE, which differ in structure and function. Antibodies play a key role in humoral immunity by neutralizing pathogens, agglutinating foreign cells, and activating the complement system and effector cells of the immune system.
This document discusses different types of immunity. It describes innate or natural immunity which individuals are born with and includes species, racial, and individual immunity. Innate immunity acts as the first line of defense and is provided by the skin, mucous membranes, and phagocytic cells. Acquired or adaptive immunity develops after exposure to pathogens and includes both active and passive immunity. Acquired immunity has humoral components involving antibodies and cellular components involving T cells. Herd immunity is also discussed, where a community's immunity protects even unvaccinated individuals when a high percentage of the population is immune.
This document discusses adjuvants and their role in vaccines. It provides an overview of the current state and future directions of adjuvant development. Some key points include:
- Adjuvants are needed to improve vaccine efficacy and induce stronger immune responses. However, developing new adjuvants faces challenges related to safety, reactogenicity, and regulatory approval.
- Many existing and candidate adjuvants can induce local or systemic adverse effects. Finding the right balance between potency and reactogenicity is an ongoing challenge.
- Various adjuvant types are classified based on their source or mechanism of action, including oil emulsions, saponins, bacterial components, liposomes, carbohydrates, aluminum salts, and polymeric microspheres.
This document discusses antigens and their classification. It defines antigens as substances that can induce an immune response. Antigens are classified as either exogenous (external) or endogenous (internal) antigens. Exogenous antigens enter the body from the external environment, while endogenous antigens are further divided into xeno-genic, allogenic, and autologous antigens based on their origin. The document also discusses the properties of immunogens and antigens, as well as factors that contribute to immunogenicity.
This document provides information on types of antigens and factors that determine antigenicity. It discusses different types of antigens, including exogenous, endogenous, autoantigens, and alloantigens. It also covers the chemical nature of antigens, including proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids. Additionally, it examines factors that influence immunogenicity, such as foreignness, molecular size, chemical nature, physical form, antigen specificity, and others. Superantigens are also discussed as a class of antigens that cause non-specific polyclonal activation of T-cells.
Vaccination involves stimulating immunity in the human body against specific diseases using modified or killed microorganisms. There are three main types of vaccines: killed vaccines using normal infections; attenuated vaccines using live but weakened virus particles; and subunit vaccines using purified virus components. Vaccination reduces susceptibility to infection, can slow or stop the spread of disease, and helps protect not only those vaccinated but also the wider community. However, some viruses mutate rapidly requiring new vaccines, vaccination involves costs and trained professionals, and both mild and severe side effects can occasionally occur.
Isotypes refer to the different classes of antibodies that are determined by variations in the heavy chain constant region. Minor differences in light and heavy chain amino acid sequences lead to subclasses within each isotype. Allotypes are allelic variations of the same isotype that differ in a few residues of one chain. Idiotypes are the unique antigenic determinants within the variable regions of individual antibody molecules that allow antibodies to recognize different epitopes.
This document summarizes different types of immunity. It describes passive immunity as the transfer of antibodies from one individual to another, providing short-term protection but no immunological memory. Active immunity is induced within an individual through exposure to an antigen, resulting in long-lasting immunological memory. Immunity can be naturally acquired through exposure to pathogens or artificially acquired through vaccination. Vaccines include inactivated, live attenuated, toxoid, and subunit vaccines.
This document provides an overview of immunity, including definitions, classifications, and mechanisms. It discusses innate immunity, which is present at birth, and acquired immunity, which develops after birth through active or passive transfer. Innate immunity involves nonspecific defenses like epithelial barriers, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation, and phagocytes. Acquired immunity can be active, developing from natural infection or vaccination, or passive, through maternal antibody transfer or administration of antiserum. The document also briefly mentions local immunity at infection sites and herd immunity within communities.
The document discusses different types of vaccines and their characteristics. It describes live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live microbes to elicit strong immunity. Inactivated vaccines use killed microbes and require multiple doses to maintain immunity. Subunit vaccines contain only antigens of microbes. Toxoid vaccines contain inactivated toxins. Conjugate vaccines link sugar antigens to proteins. DNA and recombinant vaccines use genetic material from microbes. The document provides examples and explanations of each vaccine type.
History of immunology grew out of the observation that individuals who have recovered from certain infectious diseases were thereafter protected from the disease.
Immunology (Innate and adaptive immune systems) (ANTIGENS (Ag)) Amany Elsayed
The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It defines key terms like immunity, the immune system, and immune response. It describes the two main branches of the immune system: innate (natural) immunity and adaptive (acquired) immunity. The innate system provides non-specific resistance and is the body's first line of defense. The adaptive system provides antigen-specific immunity and develops memory to enhance the response. The document also outlines the major cells involved in the immune response, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. It discusses the functions of phagocytic cells in phagocytosis and intracellular/extracellular killing of pathogens.
Basic immunology and hypersensitive disorders bebaBISRATGETACHEWMD
This document provides an overview of basic immunology and hypersensitivity disorders. It describes the innate and adaptive immune systems, including the cells involved such as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. It discusses the mechanisms of cell-mediated and humoral immunity. It also provides details on antimicrobial peptides, complement system, antigen presentation and the roles of cytokines in immune responses.
This document provides an overview of immunology and microbiology. It defines immunology as the study of protection from foreign substances and responses to them. It describes the types of immunity as innate, acquired, humoral, and cellular. It discusses the organs of the immune system including primary lymphoid organs like bone marrow and thymus, and secondary lymphoid organs like spleen and lymph nodes. It also summarizes concepts like phagocytosis, bacterial exotoxins and endotoxins, and importance of immune boosters like protein and vitamin C.
The document discusses immunity and the immune system. It defines immunity as the body's ability to resist harmful foreign materials and abnormal cells. The immune system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that mediate resistance to infection. The immune system has both innate and acquired immunity. Innate immunity provides the first line of defense and relies on genetic and anatomical barriers. Acquired immunity develops from exposure to pathogens during one's lifetime and provides adaptive, antigen-specific immune responses with immunological memory.
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune system and immune response. It discusses three lines of defense - physical and chemical barriers as the first line, nonspecific immune cells and responses as the second line, and specific immune responses mediated by lymphocytes and antibodies as the third line. It describes the cells involved in innate and adaptive immunity, including phagocytes, lymphocytes, and antigen presenting cells. It also outlines the functions of the immune system in recognition of antigens, mounting effector responses, regulation, and generation of immunological memory.
This document provides an overview of immunity and the principles of vaccination. It discusses the immune system and the types of immunity, including innate and adaptive immunity. It describes how vaccines work, the goals of vaccination, and examples of different types of vaccines including bacterial, viral, and cancer vaccines. Challenges to developing an HIV vaccine are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of immunity and the principles of vaccination. It discusses the immune system and the types of immunity, including innate and adaptive immunity. It describes how vaccines work, the goals of vaccination, and examples of different types of vaccines including bacterial, viral, and cancer vaccines. Challenges to developing an HIV vaccine are also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to innate immunity. It defines immunity and its types, with a focus on innate immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate protection and has no memory. It relies on pre-existing components like physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and humoral factors. Pattern recognition receptors on innate immune cells allow detection of microbial patterns. Innate immunity defenses include inflammation and antiviral responses. The document outlines the components and functions of the innate immune system.
This document defines and describes the immune system. It discusses:
1. Natural (innate) immunity, which is nonspecific and present at birth, involving physical and chemical barriers like skin and mucous membranes as well as white blood cells.
2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity, which is specific and develops after birth through exposure to antigens, involving active immunity from natural exposure or vaccines and passive immunity from transfer of antibodies.
3. The immune response, including phagocytosis by white blood cells, antibody production through B cells, and cytotoxic T cell response, working together to defend the body from pathogens.
This document summarizes screening methods for immunomodulators. It describes in vitro and in vivo methods for testing immunological factors. Some key in vitro methods discussed include inhibition of histamine release from mast cells and mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation assays. Key in vivo models described are the anti-anaphylactic activity (Schultz-Dale reaction) assay and delayed type hypersensitivity testing in sensitized animals. The document also provides details on the procedures and evaluations for some of these screening methods.
Classic problems and emerging areas of immune system by Kainat RamzanKainatRamzan3
The immune system can be simplistically viewed as having two “lines of defense” innate immunity and adaptive immunity. The immune system refers to a collection of cells and proteins that function to protect the skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract, and other areas from foreign antigens, such as microbes, viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.
The document provides an overview of the historical development of protective immunity. It discusses key findings and contributors such as Edward Jenner who demonstrated that cowpox fluid could protect against smallpox in 1798. Louis Pasteur introduced the concept of vaccination in 1885 through experiments showing attenuated pathogens caused less severe disease. Emil von Behring showed in 1890 that serum from animals immunized with attenuated diphtheria or tetanus viruses could cure untreated animals infected with these pathogens, providing evidence for passive immunity.
The immune system consists of a complex network of organs, cells, and molecules that work together to defend the body from pathogens. The primary lymphoid organs, bone marrow and thymus, produce immune cells. The secondary lymphoid organs, including lymph nodes and spleen, contain specialized compartments where immune cells gather and respond to antigens. Immune cells travel between the blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues to carry out functions like pathogen recognition and elimination.
The document discusses immunity and the immune system. It defines immunity as the natural or acquired resistance of an individual to pathogens. The immune system is a complex system that distinguishes self from non-self and provides defense against infectious agents. Immunology is the study of the immune system and immune responses. The immune system includes innate immunity, which provides a natural defense, and acquired immunity, which develops from exposure to pathogens. Key components of the immune system are antigens, antibodies, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and lymphoid organs that help the immune system function.
The immune system protects the body from pathogens through innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides immediate protection through physical barriers, inflammation, and phagocytosis. Adaptive immunity has antigen-specific responses and immunological memory. It involves B cells producing antibodies and T cells that mediate cellular immunity. Hypersensitivities occur when the immune system overreacts to antigens, potentially causing tissue damage.
This document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It discusses the key topics of innate immunity, adaptive immunity, antigens, antibodies, cells of the immune system, and the anatomy of the lymphoid system. Innate immunity is the non-specific first line of defense and includes physical barriers, chemical factors, cytokines, and cellular components like phagocytes. Adaptive immunity involves antigen-specific B cells and T cells and immunological memory. The primary lymphoid organs are the bone marrow and thymus, where lymphocytes mature. Secondary lymphoid organs include lymph nodes and facilitate immune cell interactions.
The document discusses the human immune system. It describes how the innate immune system provides an immediate response to pathogens through physical barriers and cells. If pathogens breach these defenses, the adaptive immune system provides a targeted response through B cells and T cells. The adaptive system also develops immunological memory to mount faster responses. Vaccinations work by exposing the immune system to antigens to develop immunity without causing disease.
This document provides an overview of the immune system, including both innate and acquired immunity. It describes how the innate immune system provides immediate protection through physical barriers and internal defenses like phagocytes and inflammation. If pathogens breach these defenses, the acquired immune system activates an antigen-specific response involving B and T cells that results in immunological memory. The differences between the innate and acquired systems are highlighted. Specific components of both systems like phagocytosis, inflammation, antibodies, and active/passive immunity are also explained in detail.
This document provides an overview of the immune system, including both innate and acquired immunity. The innate immune system provides immediate response through physical barriers like skin and mucus as well as internal defenses like phagocytes and inflammation. If pathogens breach these defenses, the acquired immune system activates an antigen-specific response using B and T cells. The document also discusses active and passive immunity, humoral versus cell-mediated immunity, and how vaccines work to stimulate immune response.
The document discusses innate immunity. It describes the components of innate immunity including epithelial surfaces, antimicrobial substances in blood and tissues, fever, acute phase proteins, and cells of the innate immune system such as phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils), mast cells, basophils, eosinophils, and platelets. These components provide non-specific defenses that help the body resist infection.
Similar to basic principles of immune system.ppt (20)
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human excretory system. It discusses the role of the lungs, skin, liver and kidneys in removing waste from the body. It provides details on the structures within the kidney, including nephrons, and how they filter the blood and produce urine. The document also outlines some common disorders of the urinary system like infections, kidney stones and renal failure. It describes dialysis as a temporary treatment for kidney failure until transplantation or organ recovery.
The kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra work together to form the urinary system and remove waste from the body. The kidneys filter waste and excess water from the blood to produce urine. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, where urine is stored until emptying. The urethra is the tube through which urine exits the body. This system keeps the body healthy by removing harmful waste.
The document summarizes the key functions and components of the excretory and respiratory systems in humans. It discusses how the kidney filters blood and regulates water and electrolyte balance through selective reabsorption and secretion. It also describes the role of lungs in gas exchange and breathing control in mammals. Various excretory organs across species are compared, along with common respiratory and skin diseases that can occur.
The excretory system removes waste from the body through various organs. The kidneys filter waste from the blood and produce urine. Urine travels from the kidneys to the bladder through ureters. The bladder stores urine until it is released through the urethra. The excretory system interacts with the circulatory system, as the kidneys filter waste from the blood brought to them by the circulatory system.
The document summarizes key concepts about osmoregulation and excretion from Chapter 44 of Campbell Biology. It discusses how physiological systems maintain balance through regulating solute concentrations and water balance. Freshwater and marine animals show different adaptations, with freshwater animals reducing water uptake and marine animals facing dehydrating environments. The kidneys are the excretory organs in vertebrates and function in both excretion and osmoregulation through specialized nephrons that filter blood and reabsorb or secrete solutes to produce urine.
A semen analysis measures the amount and quality of semen and sperm to determine fertility. It analyzes semen volume, pH, sperm count, motility, morphology, and vitality. Sperm are produced in the testes and transported through the seminal vesicles and prostate to provide nutrients and protection. A semen analysis is an important first test for infertility, identifying potential issues affecting over 1/3 of couples unable to conceive.
The document provides an overview of the human immune system, including its major components and functions. It discusses how the innate and adaptive immune systems work together to defend against pathogens. The immune system must balance fighting infections while avoiding attacks on the body's own tissues. When this balance is disrupted, it can lead to immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmunity, allergies, or transplant rejection. Vaccines stimulate adaptive immunity to generate immunological memory and protect against severe infectious diseases.
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9
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2. Immunity : Defence capacity of the body to combat
diseases counter infection.
The cells and molecules responsible for immunity
constitute the immune system.
Their collective and coordinative response to
introduction of foreign substance represent the immune
response.
Specific definition :
Immunity is a reaction to foreign substances including
microbes, as well as macromolecules (proteins,
polysacharides). The reactions include cellular and
molecular types (events).
3. Benefit of immunology for health/medicine
1. The immune system is potentially manipulated in
order the system to be under controlled condition to
combat diseases.
The manipulation of immune system may be applied by :
- manipulation of antigen potentially enter the body
vaccination.
- manipulation of antigen recognition/interaction with
cells or molecules of immune system immunotherapy
4. History of vaccination :
Discovered by Edward Jenner, based on the observation
that milkmaids who had recovered from smallpox, never
suffer from smallpox infection again in the future.
Jenner’s experiment :
- take materials (exudates) from cowpox pustule and
injected to the arm of 8 year-old boy.
- After several weeks the boy was intentionally
inoculated with smallpox the disease did not develop
the boy become immune to smallpox infection.
Jenner’s method was considered later as vaccination.
It led to the widespread acceptance of this method for
inducing immunity to infectious diseases.
5. 2. Immune reactions in vivo or in vitro are useful for
diagnosis and therapy of infectious diseases, toxin
poisoning or venom exposure.
Examples :
The level of antibody to virus or bacteria in serum is
considered to be adequate indicator for disease
progression.
Anti-toxin or anti-venom antibodies are useful to treat
one who are suffering from toxin or venom exposure.
Anti-venom antibodies should be given (injected) to
one who suffered snake bite immedietly.
6. Components of immune system :
1. Innate / natural immunity
- defense mechanisms present prior to exposure to
infectious microbes or foreign molecules.
- exist since fetal development period and persist
permanently throughout life.
- create nonspecific response nonspecific immunity
- represent the first line of defense mechanisms
against foreign invasion into the body.
7. 2. Acquired / adaptive immunity
- defense mechanisms acquired in a certain period of
life.
- create specific response specific immunity.
- develop due to induction / stimulation of foreign
substance that successfully invade the body.
- foreign substances capable of inducing immune
response are called antigen.
8. The major elements of the innate and adaptive immunity
Innate immune
system
Adaptive immune
system
Resistance Resistance is not
improved by repeated
infection
Resistance is
improved by repeated
infection
Soluble
Factors
Lysozyme, complement,
interferon
antibody
Cells Phagocytes,
Natural Killer (NK) cells
T lymphocytes
9. When pathogens (infectious agents) invade the body,
they are firstly facing elements of natural (innate)
immunity.
They eventually meet the adaptive immune system
provided they successfully break the natural immunity
the adaptive immune system react specifically to
eliminate & destroy pathogens.
Adaptive immune system create immune memory
give similar & better reaction in the secondary future
infection.
10. Elements constitute defense mechanisms in innate
immunity :
1. External (epithelial) surface of the body.
- epidermal skin is an effective barrier to prevent
microbial invasion.
- mucous epithelia of nasopharynx, gut, respiratory
tract, genitourinary tract are equipped with physical
(cilia) and chemical (enzymes) barriers to prevent /
inhibit microbial entry.
2. Phagocytes
cells which engulf microorganisms/particles capable
of crossing surface epithelia reticuloendothelial
system produced by stem cells in bone marrow :
tissue macrophages & blood monocytes.
11. 3. NK cells leucocytes which are able to recognize
membrane surface changes on virus infected cells
NK cells bind and kill the infected cells.
4. Soluble factors
- interferon proteins that are produced by virus
infected cells & lymphocytes activate NK cells &
induce resistance to neighboring infected cells.
- complements serum proteins
activated complement is coating bacteria & bring the
bacteria ready for phagocytosis opsonisation.
Leads to lysis of bacterial membrane
lytic pathway.
12. Inflammation
Body reaction to injury, caused by microorganisms/
particle invasion or scratched. Inflammatory reaction
leads elements of immune system to be mobilized
toward the site of infection.
Inflammatory reactions include :
1. vasodilatation increase in the diameter of blood
vessels increase blood supply to site of infection.
2. increase capillary permeability due to endothelial
retraction lead macromolecules (serum proteins)
drip out the capillary & infiltrate the site of infection.
3. Influx of phagocytic cells neutrophyls, monocytes
& lymphocytes penetrate away from capillary &
migrate to the site of infection.
13.
14. Signs of inflammation :
rubor redness
tumor eudema (swelling)
kalor heat
dolor painful
functio laesa (loss of function) of infected tissue
15. Specific/acquired immunity
Acquired as a result of induction & exposure to foreign
substances (antigen).
Fundamental characteristics of specific immunity :
- create immune memory provide more effective
response in further secondary infection basic
principle of vaccination.
- create focus response to certain/fixed antigen that
invades body & eliminate/destroy it increase
protective capacity of innate immunity.
16. Specific Immunity involves 2 types of immunity :
1. Humoral immunity : is mediated by molecules (serum
proteins) which recognize and eliminate free antigens
(do not attach the cell or are not cell component)
called antibody bind and react specifically to
antigen.
2. Cellular immunity (cell mediated immunity) : is
mediated by cells T lymphocytes recognize and
bind antigen on the cell surface or nonself antigen
produce immune mediator or lyse/destroy such cell
expressing antigen.
Antibodies and specific T lymphocytes are potentially
transferred to naive individuals passive immunisation.
17. Humoral and cellular response to antigen stimulation
indicate fundamental characteristics :
1. Specificity
The immune response is specific to a particular antigen.
The antibody or lymphocyte are able to recognize part of
protein complex or any other macromolecules. Part of
molecules recognized by specific antibody or
lymphocyte is called determinant or epitope.
2. Diversity
The total number of antigenic specificities of the
lymphocytes in an individual lymphocyte repertoire
estimated the capacity to discriminate 109 determinants.
18. When a lymphocyte is stimulated by antigen the
lymphocyte is going to proliferate yielding a specific
clone “clonal selection theory”.
3. Memory
The effectiveness of immune response to a particular
antigen is increasing in secondary exposure to this
antigen and so on called “immunological memory” &
mediated by “memory cells”.
4. Self limitation
Normal immune response is declining & disappearing
after a period of destimulation (stimulation is sunpended)
19.
20. 5. Discrimination of self from nonself
Able to discriminate foreign antigen from self
components. Lymphocytes react to foreign antigen
stimulation otherwise give no response to self molecules
or self components immune tolerance.
Failure of immune tolerance to self components
autoimmune diseases create pathological
consequences for the sufferer.
21. Organs involved in immune system
Organs of immune system are classified into two groups
based on their function in immune system :
- primary (central) lymphoid organs.
- secondary (peripheral) lymphoid organs.
Immature lymphocytes are undergoing maturation to
become mature lymphocytes in primary lymphoid organs
becoming immunocompetent cells.
The primary lymphoid organs in mammals are :
- bone marrow B lymphocyte maturation
- thymus T lymphocyte maturation
22. Secondary lymphoid organs collect antigens from
tissues or circulation & provide sites for immuno-
competent cells to interact effectively with antigens.
Lymph nodes collect antigens from intracellular fluid
of various tissues.
Lien (spleen) filtered antigen from blood/circulation
create response to systemic infection.
Mucous associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in gut,
respiratory tract, genitourinary tract (Peyer’s patch,
tonsils, adenoids) trapped antigens which enter via
mucous membrane.
23.
24.
25.
26. Cells involved in specific immune system
The entire cells of specific immune system derive from
pluripotent “stem cells” in bone marrow & develop
through hematopoeisis process.
They differentiate into 2 lineages :
1. myeloid lineage produce phagocytes and other
blood cells.
2. lymphoid lineage produce lymphocytes.
Phagocytes are differentiated into two groups :
- monocytes able to pass away from vascular system
& transform to tissue phagocytes
macrophages.
- Polymorphonuclear cells neutrophyls, basophyls,
eosinophyls.
27.
28.
29. Lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow, circulate in
blood and lymphoid system & occupy lymphoid organs.
Lymphocyte recognize & interact with antigen through its
receptor on the cell surface.
2 types of lymphocytes discriminated based on their
membrane protein marker :
B lymphocytes CD 11 marker on their surface.
T lymphocytes CD 3 marker on their surface.
30. B lymphocytes
Produced and develop in bone marrow. Equipped with
Ab molecules as antigen receptor; the ab receptor is
fixed in cell membrane through its Ch terminal. When
naive B cell get in contact with specific antigen it will
proliferate & differentiate to be B memory cells capable
of secreting specific antibody plasma cells.
31. T lymphocytes
Develop from stem cells in bone marrow. They migrate
to the thymus & differentiate to become mature
T lymphocytes.
Mature T cells express “antigen binding protein” on their
surface, represent as T cell receptor (TCR) compose
of 2 protein subunits or , connected to each other
by disulphide bonds.
TCR recognize antigen on the cell surface in association
with (presented by) MHC (HLA) molecules.
When naive T cell contact to antigen T cell proliferate
& differentiate to become memory and effector T cells.
32. Subpopulation of T cells :
Helper T cells (TH) & Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
discriminated based on their protein marker on the cell
surface CD4 marker for TH
CD8 marker for TC
After contact with antigen TH cells develop into effector
capable of cytokine (lymphokine) secretion activate
B cells, TC cells, phagocytic cells etc.
TC develop into effector which mediate cytotoxic
reactions killing/ lysis cells expressing antigen :
- virus infected cells
- cells infected by intracellular microbes
- tumor cells
- allograft cells
33.
34. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
Membrane proteins, expressed by gene cluster &
inherited in tight linkage modes.
MHC products play important roles in antigen (Ag)
recognition by immunocompetent cells & discrimination
between self and nonself define tissue compatibility
among individuals of the same species called
transplantation antigens.
MHC is also critical for the creation of humoral and cell
mediated immunity TH & TC recognize Ag in
association with MHC molecules establish antigen
repertoire which give response to TH & TC implicate
in the susceptibility to disease & autoimmunity.
35. HLA code for 3 kind of molecules : HLA class I, class II &
class III.
HLA class I is coded by regio A, B and C
HLA class II is coded by regio DP, DQ and DR
each regio constitute alleles which are multiple create
huge variation of individuals, despite of brothers or
sisters.
HLA class I molecules present Ag recognized by TC
carried by almost all nuclear cells.
HLA class II molecules present Ag recognized by TH
carried by antigen presenting cells (APC)
macrophages, dendritic cells, B lymphocytes, etc.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41. Humoral immunity
Mediated by antibodies, proteins that are presence in
serum & body liquid of mammals belong to protein
serum fraction, globulin immunoglobulin (Ig).
Produced and secreted by B lymphocytes that has been
stimulated by specific antigen becoming committed
cells (sensitized B lymphocytes) and develop to plasma
cells.
Function as effector that mediate binding to free antigen
(no attachment or not part of cell components),
neutralize and eliminate such antigen away from the
body.
42.
43. Ig molecules
Protein of 150.000. mw, compose of 4 subunits :
2 heavy (H) chains, each make pairing with light (L)
chain. Each subunit is connected to its complement by
disulphide bond.
The molecule is divided into two domains :
V (variable) domain aminoterminal part, varies among
molecules & define the specificity
of Ig to Ag. The aminoterminal
end undergo modification to
become “antigen binding site”
C (constant) domain constant & identical in similar Ig
type.
44.
45. Immunoglobulin molecule variations
1. Isotype variation defined by determinant present in
Ch and Cl which discriminate Ig of the same species.
2. Allotype variation defined by the variation of amino
acids in either H or L chain, coded by different alleles
expressed by individuals of the same species.
3. Idiotype variation defined by variation of Vh and Vl
constructing Ag binding site define the specificity of
Ig to Ag.
46.
47.
48. 5 Ig classes available in all species, defined by Ig H
chain.
IgG – the predominant Ig in normal serum, constitute
70 – 75% of total Ig. Distribute intra and extra
vascular; represent dominant antibodies
accumulate during secondary immune response,
especially function as anti-toxin.
IgM – include 10% of total Ig. Present as pentamer
molecules, distribute intravascular. Represent
the predominant Ab in early response to
microbial infection.
49. IgA – include 15 – 20% of total Ig. Present in dimeric
conformation, equipped with “secretory
component”, recognized as sIgA. Predominant in
mucous secret i.e. saliva, tracheobronchial secret
genitourinary mucous, etc.
IgD – less than 1% of total Ig, fixed in cell membrane of
B lymphocytes. Function as antigen receptor &
necessary for B cell stimulation to become
plasma cells.
IgE – available in small proportion, attach to basophyl
and mast cell membrane. Involved in developing
immunity to parasites (helminthes) and
hypersensitivity disease i.e. asthma.
50. Phases of immune response :
1. Cognitive phase – antigen recognition through antigen
binding to specific receptor on lymphocyte surface.
B lymphocyte – bind Ag to surface Ig.
T lymphocyte – bind Ag fragment – MHC (HLA) to
TCR.
2. Activation phase
- lymphocyte proliferation – clonal expansion of
specific lymphocyte to certain antigen.
- lymphocyte differentiation
B lymphocyte secreting cells (plasma cells)
Ab bind to free Ag (soluble Ag).
51. T lymphocyte mediated killing
activate macrophages to kill
intracellular microbes.
lysis of cells expressing foreign Ag or
viral Ag.
3. Effector phase – elimination and neutralisation of Ag.
Require participation of nonlymphoid cells
collectively recognized as effector cells.
Ag-Ab complex are phagocyted by polymorpho
nuclear & mononuclear cells (in circulation).
Ag-Ab complex activate complement system to
mediate lysis & phagocytosis of microorganisms.
Sensitized T lymphocytes secrete cytokine
activate cytolysis & phagocytosis.