A semen analysis measures the amount and quality of semen and sperm to determine fertility. It analyzes semen volume, pH, sperm count, motility, morphology, and vitality. Sperm are produced in the testes and transported through the seminal vesicles and prostate to provide nutrients and protection. A semen analysis is an important first test for infertility, identifying potential issues affecting over 1/3 of couples unable to conceive.

1. Semen analysis

2. Introduction
• A semen analysis measures the amount of semen a man
produces and determines the number and quality of
sperm in the semen sample.
• A semen analysis is usually one of the first tests done to
help determine whether a man has a problem fathering a
child (infertility).
• A problem with the semen or sperm affects more than
one-third of the couples who are unable to have
children (infertile).

3. • Sperm is the male gamete, that is, the male sex cell, which has the
capacity to fertilise an egg. Sperm are produced in
the seminiferous tubes of the testes. Germ cells for the production
of spermatozoa
• Specialized Sertoli cells provide support and nutrients for the
germ cells as they undergo mitosis and meiosis
(spermatogenesis).
• When spermatogenesis is complete, the immature sperm
(nonmotile) enter the epididymis.
• In the epididymis, the sperm mature and develop flagella.
• They remain stored in the epididymis until ejaculation.
• The ejaculatory ducts receive both the sperm from the ductus
deferens and fluid from the seminal vesicles.
Physiology

4. Fluid Fractions
1. Urethral glands (2-5%) are very small mucus
secreting glands.
2. Prostate: Approximately 20% to 30% of the semen
volume is acidic fluid produced by the prostate gland,
the secretion contains acid phosphatase and
proteolytic enzymes that act on the fluid from the
seminal vesicles, resulting in the coagulation and
liquefaction of the semen.

5. 3. Seminal vesicles (produce about 46-80 % of the fluid
volume of semen) viscous, yellowish secretion is rich
in fructose, vitamin C, prostaglandin, and other
substances, which nourish and activate the sperm
passing through the tract.
4. Testis & Epididymis: (5%) Spermatozoa are
produced in the testis under the influence of
testosterone, and then the epididymis (is the first part
of the duct system) provides a temporary storage site
for the immature sperm that enter it from testis. This
fraction still in the inactive form until ejaculation.

8. Formation of the sperm cell
• Spermatogenesis is a cascade of cell divisions:
o Mitosis: spermatogonia to primary spermatocytes
o First meiotic division: secondary spermatocytes
o Second meiotic division: haploid spermatids
• This process takes 70 ± 4 days in the human.
• Spermiogenesis: differentiation of the round spermatid
into a spermatozoon

10. Sperm transport and seminal plasma
• “Testicular sperm” need to undergo more maturation
steps before they are ready to fertilize.
• Transported from the testes to the epididymis, where
they mature, and acquire the ability to swim.
• Then moved to the vas deferens, for storage.
• At ejaculation, the sperm are transported out of the
vas and mix with accessory gland secretions:
– prostatic fluid (pH slightly alkaline to neutral;
contains citric acid and zinc).
– seminal vesicle fluid (pH strongly alkaline;
contains fructose).

12. What the spermatozoon
• The human sperm cell is about 70 µm
long.
• The nucleus is in the head – contains
the 23 chromosomes.
• It is the head which binds to the egg at
fertilization.
• Mid-piece: the energy for motility is
generated.
• Tail: (motility the beat is initiated just
behind the mid-piece, and then
propagated along the tail).

14. What the purpose of the test
• Investigation of fertility
• Identify treatment options
 Surgical treatment.
 Medical treatment.
 Assisted conception treatment.
 Determine the suitability of semen for artificial insemination
or IVF.

15. Sample collection
• Specimen should be collected into pre warmed (21oC), sterile,
non-toxic, wide-mouth container, after a couple has abstain from
sexual activity for 2-3 days to not longer than 5 days.
• Specimens collected following prolonged abstinence tend to
have higher volumes and decreased motility.
• When performing fertility testing, two or three samples are
usually tested at 2-week intervals, with two abnormal samples
considered significant.
• The specimen should be delivered to the laboratory within 1
hour of collection and the laboratory personnel must record the
time of specimen collection and specimen receipt.
• The sample must be kept at 37°C until analysis, which begins
ideally within 30 min, but absolutely within 60 min, of
ejaculation

16. Methods of collection
1. Masturbation (the method of choice for all seminal fluid
tests).
2. By condom: it is not recommended for fertility testing
because the condoms may contain spermicidal agents.
3. By coitus interrupts: (withdrawal method).
4. TESA: Testicular sperm extraction (TESE)- Open Testicular
Biopsy: is a highly invasive, open surgical procedure
performed under general anaesthetic. The scrotum and testes
are cut open, before testicular tissues are cut away and
examined for sperm, which, if present can be extracted.

18. Label of sample
• Patient name
• Clinic number
• Date and time
• Laboratory request form
• The following should be recorded on the laboratory
analysis form:
– The period of abstinence (in days).
– If sample collection was complete or incomplete.
– The time interval from collection to analysis

19. Macroscopic examination
• There are several macroscopic evaluations which give useful
diagnostic information about the sample:
 Appearance
 Odour
 Liquefaction
 Volume
 Viscosity
 pH

21. Liquefaction
• A fresh semen specimen is clotted and should liquefy
within 30 to 60 minutes after collection; therefore,
recording the time of collection is essential for
evaluation of semen liquefaction.
• Analysis of the specimen cannot begin until after
liquefaction has occurred.
• If after 2 hours the specimen has not liquified
proteolytic enzymes such as alpha-chymotrypsin may
be added to allow the rest of the analysis to be
performed.

22. Macroscopic examination
 Volume: normal is (2-5 mL). Using disposable
volumetric pipette .
• WHO criteria specify that any volume greater than
2.0 mL is normal. Low volume may indicate partial
or complete blockage of the seminal vesicles, or that
the man was born without seminal vesicles.
• Viscosity: Estimate the viscosity of the semen by
aspirating the semen into the measuring pipette and
allowing the semen to drop by gravity and will not
appear clumped. Observe the length of the thread.
volumetric pipette

23. • The normal pH of semen is alkaline with a range of 7.0
to 8.0.
• Increased pH is indicative of infection within the
reproductive tract.
• A decreased pH is associated with increased prostatic
fluid.
pH

24. Microscopic examination
• The characteristics assessed are:
Motility.
Sperm aggregation (random clumping): “some” is normal, but
large clumps (each with hundreds of sperm) is abnormal.
Spermagglutination (between specific sites): could suggest the
presence of antisperm antibodies.
Epithelial cells: usually present in small numbers
Erythrocytes: should not be present
Bacteria and protozoa: presence indicates infection

25. Normal Semen Analysis
2ml or more (usually 2-4 milliliters per ejaculation)
Semen volume
Semen pH of 7.2-8.0
Semen pH
20-30 minutes after collection
Liquefaction time
40 million spermatozoa per ejaculate or more
Sperm count
More than 30% of the sperm have normal shape and
structure.
Sperm morphology
More than 50% of the sperm show progressive
movement or 25% or more with rapid progressive
movement.
Sperm motility
75% or more live, i.e., excluding dye
Vitality
Fewer than 1 million WBCs/ml
White blood cells

26. Microscopic examination

27. • Normal values for sperm concentration are commonly listed as
greater than 20 million sperm per milliliter, with concentrations
between 10 and 20 million per milliliter considered borderline.
• The total sperm count for the ejaculate can be calculated by
multiplying the sperm concentration by the specimen volume.
• Total sperm counts greater than 40 million per ejaculate are
considered normal (20 million per milliliter 2 mL).
Microscopic examination

28. Methods of measuring sperm concentration
• Hemacytometer: Sperm can be counted by make
dilution 1:20 in WBC pipette or by automatic pipette
(which is more accurate) with a solution containing
sodium bicarbonate (5g) and formalin (1ml)
(immobilize & preserve the spermatozoa), tap water
(100 ml) will suffice as a diluent.

29. Sperm concentration - haemocytometer
• The number of squares assessed
depends on the number of sperm
counted in the first large square:
–If < 10 counted, the whole
grid is assessed
–If 10-40 counted, 10 squares
are assessed
–If > 40 counted, 5 squares
are assessed
First large square counted
large central square.
This square is ruled into 25 small squares,
each of which is further divided into 16

30. Sperm concentration - calculations
• If the counts of the two chambers are not within 5% of their
average discard, remix the sample, and set it up again
• If the two counts are in agreement, then the sum of the two
counts is divided by the correction factor:
If 2 × 25 squares counted, divide their sum by 10
If 2 × 10 squares counter, divide their sum by 4
If 2 × 5 squares counted, divide their sum by 2
• This gives the sperm concentration in millions per ml
• Sperm count = concentration × total volume

31. Calculations
• Using a 1:20 dilution and four large WBC’s squares
counted
• The sperm concentration/ml = No of sperms counted
x 50,000
• Using a 1:20 dilution and five small RBC’s squares
counted
• The sperm concentration /ml = No of sperms
counted x 1,000,000

32. Sperm concentration – interpretation
• The WHO Reference values for:
Sperm concentration is > 20 × 106 sperm/ml
• Counts of less than 20 million per milliliter (<20
million/ml) are considered sub-fertile
• If a man has a sperm concentration < 5 × 106 sperm/ml,
the WHO recommends assessment for numerical and
structural abnormalities of sex chromosomes

33. Direct smear or Wet preparation
Place 10µl of thoroughly mixed, liquefied semen on a
clean glass slide under a lightly applied glass cover
slip will allow visualization of the sperm in a
specimen of semen under HPF.

34. • The World Health Organization has a value of 50%
and this must be measured within 60 minutes of
collection.
• A man can have a total number of sperm far over the
limit of 20 million sperm cells per milliliter, but still
have bad quality because too few of them are motile.
• The other way around, a man can have a sperm count
far less than 20 million sperm cells per millilitre and
still have good motility, if more than 60% of those
observed sperm cells show good forward movement.
Motility

35. Motility of sperm are divided into four different grades
• Grade 4: Sperm with progressive motility. These are the
strongest and swim fast in a straight line. Sometimes it is also
denoted motility a.
• Grade 3: (non-linear motility): These also move forward but
tend to travel in a curved or crooked motion. Sometimes also
denoted motility b.
• Grade 2: These have non-progressive motility because they do
not move forward despite the fact that they move their tails.
• Grade 1: These are immotile and fail to move at all.

36. Sperm morphology
• Morphology is even more important than motility and
concentration
• Because of the small size of the human sperm head, must use an
air-dried smear which has been stained
• Prepared samples are assessed using a 100× oil-immersion
objective under bright field optics
• The WHO recommends that 200 spermatozoa are counted per
sample
• Fields for counting must be selected at random
• When counting, remember about the normal distribution

37. Abnormal morphology

39. Sperm Vitality
• Usually performed using a vital stain, such as eosin Y,
with a counterstain (nigrosin) to differentiate live
(unstained) and dead (stained) spermatozoa.

40. Agglutination
• Agglutination of spermatozoa means that motile spermatozoa
stick to each other, head to head, mid-piece to mid-piece, tail to
tail, or mixed, e.g. mid-piece to tail.
• The adherence of either immotile or motile spermatozoa to
mucus threads, to cells other than spermatozoa, or to debris is not
considered agglutination and should not be recorded as such.
• The presence of agglutination is suggestive of an immunological
factor of infertility.

41. Other cells in semen
• Leukocytes: normally (1-4/HPF), increase number
(leukocytospermia) indicates reproductive tract infection
• Epithelial cells: normally (1-2/HPF)
• Spermatocytes: (Immature germ cells) 1-2/HPF.
• Erythrocytes: (1-2/HPF). Increased number may indicate a
reproductive tract infection or damage to a small capillary
during sample production.
• Note: Some protozoan such as Trichomonas vaginalis are
uncommon in human semen but their presence is indicative of
possible male reproductive tract infection and should be
reported to the referring doctor for further evaluation.

42. Semen biochemistry
• Acid phosphatase: marker for prostatic function
• Citric acid: can indicate prostatic function – low
levels may indicate dysfunction or a prostatic duct
obstruction
• Zinc: marker for prostatic function – colorimetric
assay (WHO)
• Fructose: marker for seminal vesicle function,
and is a substrate for sperm metabolism –
spectrophotometric assay (WHO)

43. Terms
• Aspermia: absence of semen
• Azoospermia: describe a total absence of spermatozoa
in semen. (After centrifuge sperm count is zero/HPF).
• Oligozoospermia: refers to a reduced number of
spermatozoa in semen and is usually used to describe a
sperm concentration of less than 20 million/ml. Sperm
count 5-10 sperm/HPF.
• Severe oligospermia: sperm count 1-2 sperm/HPF.
• Polyzoospermia: denotes an increased number of
spermatozoa in semen and is usually refers to a sperm
concentration in excess of 350 million/ml.

44. • Asthenozoospermia: refers to a man who produces a
greater proportion of sperm which are immotile or
have reduced motility, compared to the WHO
reference values.
• Teratozoospermia: sperm carry more morphological
defects than usual

45. TZI
• The Teratozoospermic Index is an expression of the average
number of abnormalities per abnormal sperm
• Each sperm cell is assessed for an abnormality in the head,
neck/mid-piece, or tail, and for a cytoplasmic droplet
• If it does not have any of these abnormalities, it is “normal”
• If it does have an abnormality, it is “abnormal”, and we score
each abnormality. So, if a cell has an abnormal head and tail,
it is counted as 1 cell, and 2 abnormalities
• Then, (total # abnormalities) / (total # sperm) = TZI
• A TZI > 1.80 has been associated with poor sperm fertilizing
ability

46. infertility

47. What is infertility?
• Infertility means not being able to get pregnant after one year of
trying. Or, women who can get pregnant but are unable to stay
pregnant may also be infertile.
• Pregnancy: is the result of a process that has many steps. To get
pregnant:
 A woman must release an egg from one of her ovaries
(ovulation).
 The egg must go through Fallopian tube toward the uterus
(womb).
 A man's sperm must join with (fertilize) the egg along the way.
 The fertilized egg must attach to the inside of the uterus
(implantation).
 Infertility can happen if there are problems with any of these
steps.

48. • High temperature of testicles (testes). Sperm are made in the
testes which are in the scrotum. This is the body's way of
keeping the testes slightly cooler than the rest of the body,
which is best for making sperm.
• Smoking can affect the sperm count. If you smoke, you
should stop completely for optimum sperm production.
• Alcohol: equivalent eight pints of normal strength beer or
sixteen small glasses of wine, may interfere with optimum
fertility.
• Medicines and drugs. Most do not interfere with sperm
production such as tetracyclines, colchicine, allopurinol.
What increases a man's risk of infertility?

49. What things increase a woman's risk of
infertility?
 Age
 Stress
 Poor diet
 Being overweight or underweight
 Smoking
 Excess alcohol use
 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
 Health problems that cause hormonal changes, such as
polycystic ovarian syndrome and primary ovarian
insufficiency

50. assisted reproduction techniques
(ART)

51. • ART includes all fertility treatments in which both eggs and
sperm are handled. In general, ART procedures involve surgically
removing eggs from a woman’s ovaries, combining them with
sperm in the laboratory, and returning them to the woman’s body.
or procedures in which a woman takes medicine only to stimulate
egg production without the intention of having eggs retrieved.
• The different types of assisted reproductive technology
(ART)?
1. In vitro fertilization (IVF) means fertilization outside of the
body. IVF is the most effective ART. It is often used when a
woman's Fallopian tubes are blocked or when a man produces
too few sperm.

52. 2. Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT): is similar to IVF.
Fertilization occurs in the laboratory. Then the very young
embryo is transferred to the Fallopian tube instead of the
uterus.
3. Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) involves transferring
eggs and sperm into the woman's Fallopian tube. So
fertilization occurs in the woman's body.
4. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is often used for
couples in which there are serious problems with the sperm.
Sometimes it is also used for older couples or for those with
failed IVF attempts. In ICSI, a single sperm is injected into a
mature egg. Then the embryo is transferred to the uterus or
Fallopian tube

53. Sperm preparation
• Discontinuous density gradient: is a technique in
which all sperm in the seminal fluid are separated by
centrifugation.
• Swim up: is a technique in which the most motile
sperm are selected from the ejaculate. Fresh semen is
covered with a medium and placed in a cylinder which
is laid at a 45oC angle. Motile sperm in the ejaculate
will then swim up to the top of the tube, leaving
immotile sperm and debris in the lower part of the
cylinder.