The document discusses immunity and the immune system. It defines immunity as the natural or acquired resistance of an individual to pathogens. The immune system is a complex system that distinguishes self from non-self and provides defense against infectious agents. Immunology is the study of the immune system and immune responses. The immune system includes innate immunity, which provides a natural defense, and acquired immunity, which develops from exposure to pathogens. Key components of the immune system are antigens, antibodies, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and lymphoid organs that help the immune system function.
Innate and adaptive immunity, B LYMPHOCYTES, T LYMPHOCYTES, ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS, Humoral Immunity But Not Cellular Immunity Is Transferred with Antibody, Exogenous PATHWAY, Endogenous pathway, Differences in the primary and secondary response, Immune Dysfunction and Its Consequences, Immune Response to Infectious Diseases, Viral Infections, Bacterial Infections
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
Innate and adaptive immunity, B LYMPHOCYTES, T LYMPHOCYTES, ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS, Humoral Immunity But Not Cellular Immunity Is Transferred with Antibody, Exogenous PATHWAY, Endogenous pathway, Differences in the primary and secondary response, Immune Dysfunction and Its Consequences, Immune Response to Infectious Diseases, Viral Infections, Bacterial Infections
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
It is in these organs where the cells of the immune system do their actual job of fighting off germs and foreign substances.
Bone marrow. Bone marrow is a sponge-like tissue found inside the bones. ...
Thymus. The thymus is located behind the breastbone above the heart. ...
Lymph nodes. ...
Spleen. ...
Tonsils. ...
Mucous membranes.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
It is in these organs where the cells of the immune system do their actual job of fighting off germs and foreign substances.
Bone marrow. Bone marrow is a sponge-like tissue found inside the bones. ...
Thymus. The thymus is located behind the breastbone above the heart. ...
Lymph nodes. ...
Spleen. ...
Tonsils. ...
Mucous membranes.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
dear students,, myself dr manish tiwari tutor department of microbiology at saraswati medical college unnao lucknow if any query regarding this ppt olease contact me my whatsaap no 8979352824.
Immune system is our defense mechanism which provides protection against various infections and ailments. Low immunity is the root cause for all the problems so Planet Ayurveda presents a fabulous herbal formulation for enhancing immunity power.
The immune system has evolved to protect the host from a universe of pathogenic microbes that are themselves constantly evolving. The immune system also helps the host eliminate toxic or allergenic substances that enter our body. It is a host defence system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. The host uses both innate and adaptive mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogenic foreign bodies. Both of these mechanisms include self-nonself discrimination.
The main parts of the immune system are:
• White Blood Cells
• Antibodies
• Complement System
• Lymphatic System
• Spleen
• Bone Marrow
• Thymus.
AT THE END OF THIS SESSION, STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
a. Define immunity and contrast the difference between its 2 types (innate & acquired).
b. Describe some mechanisms for innate immunity (interferon’s & complement should be included).
c. Describe briefly the mechanism of acquired immunity and identify the major differences between its two types (humoral & cell-mediated).
d. Relate the knowledge acquired to some clinical problems (e.g., AIDS)
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Comparative structure of adrenal gland in vertebrates
IMMUNITY AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
1.
2. Immunity is a natural or acquired resistance of an individual to
the development of pathological condition even after having received infective
dose of virulent pathogen, its toxin or an allergen.
IMMUNE SYSTEM is a complex system of the body including
cellular and molecular components which has the primary function of
distinguishing self from nonself and defence against infectious agents, foreign
substances and cancer.
IMMUNOLOGY is the branch of biology that deals with the study of immune
system and immune responses. Study of structure and function of immune
system is called basic immunology. Other branches are Clinical immunology,
laboratory immunology, serology and immunochemistry.
Edward Jenner is known as father of immunology.
FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
React to foreign dangerous agents.
Immunological surveillance.
Defence against pathogens
Virus, fungi, bacteria, protozoa,
parasites.
Detect and remove abnormal cells.
e.g.: - tumour, damaged cells.
Anti-allergen action
Distinguish self from foreign.
3. INNATE IMMUNITY
It is a natural genotype based system of defence elements with
which an individual is born and which are always available to
the living body for providing protection against various
infections.
Also known as INBORN IMMUNITY, GENETIC IMMUNITY,
FAMILIAL IMMUNITY.
There is no antigenic recognition or development of specific
immune response. It is therefore called nonspecific immunity.
It is the major source of body defence against pathogens in most
organisms.
4. Psychological barriers: -
Operate at biochemical and functional levels. They
include friendly microbes, body temperature, ph and
body secretions.
1: - Friendly microorganisms: - They occur over the
skin, nasal chambers, intestine and vagina. They
produce secretions harmful to pathogens.
2: - Body temperature: - Temperature rises in response
to toxins produced. by pathogens. Fever or rise in
temperature inhibits growth of many pathogens.
3: - Body secretions: - Acid(HCl) in stomach, Oil,
Sweat, Cerumen(earwax), lysozyme (present in tears,
saliva, mucus, sweat) also inhibit growth of pathogens.
Physical barriers: -
They are barriers which do not allow the entry of
pathogens and other foreign agents into the body.
It includes skin, hair, mucous membranes, mucus, cilia
and friendly microorganisms.
1: - Skin: - It is covered by a horny layer of dead keratinized cells
which does not allow entry of foreign agents.
2: - Cilia: - They occur in nasal tract. The particles and microbes
trapped in mucus are pushed outwardly by cilia for throwing out.
3: - Mucous membranes: - The membranes lie in all internal tracts
i.e. digestive, respiratory and urinogenital. They prevent the entry
of invading pathogenic organisms.
5. Cellular barriers: -
They are of two types, phagocytic barriers and
natural killer cells.
Phagocytic barriers: - They bring about
phagocytosis of invading microorganisms and
foreign particles. Phagocytic barriers are, therefore,
an important component of innate immunity. There
are two types of phagocytes, leucocytes and
macrophages.
Phagocytic leucocytes or WBC's are of two types
neutrophils and monocytes.
1.Neutrophils: -
Also known as PMNL (polymorphonuclear
leucocytes)
come out of blood capillaries and reach the site
of infection
Most abundant phagocytic leucocytes.
2.Macrophages: -
Components of reticuloendothelial system
Large, Irregular phagocytic cells present in both
fixed and wandering states
Attack, engulf, eliminate microbes and foreign
particles whenevertheyhappen toenterthe body.
6. NKC's (Natural killer cells): -
Small lymphocytes which originate from bone marrow
Specialized to perform cytotoxic activity without prior
sensitization
have interferon augmented activity against virus infected
cells
Take part in APOPTOSIS.
Cytokine barriers: -
Nonantibody proteins which are released by cells after coming in contact
with antigen. Intercellular mediators that produce immune response.
Interferons: -They are glycoproteins released by living cells in
response to viral attack. Interferons. They make the surrounding cells
resistant to viral infection by inhibiting multiplication of viral particles.
7. Inflammatory barriers: - A localised immune response appears at
the site of infection or tissue injury which is manifested as redness,
swelling, pain and heat.
The damaged mast cells of connective tissue produce alarm signals in the
form of histamine and prostaglandins.
Complement system: -
Contains 30 serum proteins which have a
cascade like effect resulting in lysis of
microbes.
TYPES
1.Classic pathway: - Functions
in acquired immunity.
2. Alternative pathway: -
Functions in innate immunity.
Alternate pathway: -Also known as
PROPERDIN SYSTEM. It is activated
directly by presence of bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides,
microbe cell wall and other components of invading microorganisms.
Certain proteins of system undergo cleavage and form
i) membrane attack complex (Lytic complex)
ii) biologically active fragments. Protein components of membrane attack
complex get embedded in the plasma membrane of microbe and form pores.
As a result, water enters the microbe and it bursts.
8. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
It is immunity or occurrence of resistance to a disease which develops during
life time of an individual by obtaining or producing antibodies and cells
against the specific microorganisms.
Also known as adaptive immunity and specific immunity.
Occurs only in vertebrates.
Develops only on exposure to concerned microorganism
Primary response: -The first encounter with the pathogen produces
a low intensity response called primary response.
Effected by IgM, NK cells and alternate pathway of immune system.
Slow and feeble response.
Secondary response: -Subsequent encounter with the same
pathogen produces a highly intensified response called secondary response or
anamnestic response.
Heightened and quick response, lasts longer
Effected by lymphocytes.
9. Features of acquired immunity: -
1. Specificity: - It is specific for each type of pathogen. Therefore, it has the
ability to distinguish among various types of foreign molecule.
2.Diversity: - It can develop against all diverse types of pathogens, their
toxins and other molecules.
3.Discrimination between Self and nonself: - It can differentiate foreign and
body cells and molecules.
4.Memory: - The first encounter between the specific foreign agent or
microbe and the body's immune system produces both immune response
and memory. Because of it a second encounter with the same pathogen
TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: -
Acquiredactiveimmunity:-Immunityacquiredbytheindividualeitherduring
vaccination or previous contraction of a disease.
Period required for developing it is long
May last a few months (e.g.: -typhoid vaccination), to life long
(e.g.: -chicken pox)
Acquiredpassiveimmunity: -Immunityto diseaseisacquired duetoobtaining
antibodies from outside.
Foetus obtains antibody against diseases from mother through placenta
(IgG) and Colostrum(IgA) which is a thick yellow colored early milk
Develops quickly comparatively to active immunity.
10. IMMUNE SYSTEM
It is a specialized system of the body that recognizes foreign
antigens, responds to them for their elimination and keeps a
memory of the same.
Important role in allergies, autoimmunity and organ implantation.
Consists of antibodies, cells, tissues and lymphoid organs.
Working of immune system is based on two components, humoral
and cell mediated.
HUMORAL IMMUNE SYSTEM OR ANTIBODY
MEDIATED IMMUNE SYSTEM(AMIS): -
It consists of different types of antibodies that
occur in body humors or fluids like lymph and
blood plasma.
Antibodies are formed by plasma cells which
are in turn formed by B lymphocytes.
AMIS occurs against pathogens that enter body
fluids.
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE SYSTEM(AMIS): -
It is a component of immune system which consists of T lymphocytes.
Cell mediated immune response or Cell mediated
immunity(CMI) functions against pathogens
which pass into host cells.
Also operates against cancer cells and
transplants.
11. B-LYMPHOCYTES
Some lymphocytes are processed in liver during embryo stage
and bone marrow after birth called B-lymphocytes.
Short lived, only for few days.
Component of Antibody Mediated Immune System(AMIS)
Produce specific plasma cells which secrete antibodies
FUNCTIONS: -B-cells are sensitized both directly by
antigens as well as by helper T-cells. An activated
B-lymphocyte enlarges and undergoes division to form PLASMA
CELLS. PLASMA CELLS have abundant endoplasmic reticulum.
They secrete antibodies. One type of plasma cell secretes only a
particular type of antibody.
T-LYMPHOCYTES
Some lymphocytes pass to thymus for preprocessing called T-
lymphocytes or THYMUS PREPROCESSED LYMPHOCYTES.
They live for 4-5 years. Some live throughout life.
Component of Cell Mediated Immune System(CMIS)
TYPES OF T-LYMPHOCYTES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS: -
On coming in contact with antigens, a T-lymphocyte produces a clone of
lymphocytes.
Clone has four types of cells
Helper T-cells(TH): -
Form 75% of the total lymphocytes of a clone.
Secrete Lymphokines for performing several kinds of functions like
proliferation of other T-cells, stimulation of B-lymphocytes, attraction
of macrophages and feedback.
12. Killer or cytotoxic T-cells(TC): -Cytotoxic T-cells reach the site of infection, come
in contact with microbes and secrete perforins. Perforins form holes. It is followed by
secretion of toxic materials into the microbes for killing the same. Soon after a killer
T-cell separate and attacks another pathogen.
TC cells also attack cancer cells, cells of transplanted organs and TH cells invaded by
HIV
Memory T-cells: -They are those cells which previously sensitized and retain the
sensitization for future.
CLONAL SELECTION: -
Body has numerous types of both B and T cells, each with a specific its surface. The
number lymphocytes carrying specific receptor is therefore, small. In case of B-
lymphocyte, the receptor is antibody being produced by it. If a receptor carrying
lymphocyte happens to come in contact with antigenic determinant specific to it, the same
becomes activated. The activated lymphocyte specific for the antigenic determinant now
begins to divide rapidly and produce a large clone of cells. The formation of a clone of B-
Day and T-lymphocytes against a particular antigenic determinant or antigen is called
clonal selection. All of them are derived from a single parent cell and exhibit the same
specificity. The cells then differentiate into different types, mainly effector and memory
cells. While the effector cells take part in elimination of antigen containing foreign agent,
the memory cells are long lived lymphocytes which keep memory of contact between
antibody determinant and lymphocyte receptor.
.
13. LYMPHOID ORGANSthey are those organs which function as site
of formation, multiplication and maturation of lymphocytes.
Primary lymphoid organs: -
These are the organs where B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes are formed,
mature and acquire their antigen specific receptors
Bone marrow and thymus are primary lymphoid organs.
Bone marrow is the organ where all types of blood cells including
lymphocytes are formed.
B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow while T-lymphocytes mature
in thymus.
They provide microenvironment for development and maturation of T-
lymphocytes. Thymus is lobed endocrine gland situated below sternum
near the heart. It is quite large at birth and keeps on reducing with age
so that at puberty it is quite small.
14. Secondary lymphoid organs: -
These are the sites of proliferation and differentiation. These organs where
lymphocytes reside after maturation are called secondary lymphoid organs.
Lymph nodes, spleen and lymphoid tissues of respiratory tract, digestive tract
(Peyer’s patches, appendix, tonsils) and other mucosal surfaces.
MALT: - Lymphoid tissue is located in lining of different tracts of the body (e.g.
respiratory, digestive and urogenital) is uncapsulated and called Mucosal
Associated Lymphoid Tissue(MALT). it constitutes nearly 50% of lymphoid
tissue of the body. Both types of lymphocytes reside in the same secondary
lymphoidorgan, of course, in fairly distinctareas. Whenever aforeign agententers
the body, it is trapped by secondary lymphoid organ present near the portal of
entry and mounts an immune response with the help of its T-cells and B-cells.
Spleen: - It is a large bean-shaped vascular organ which is popularly called blood
bank and grave yard of RBCs. It is present on left side nearly in contact with
stomach. Spleen filters and traps blood borne microbes. Antibodies produced by
lymphocytes take part in eliminating the microbes through phagocytes.
Lymph nodes: -These are small oval solid swellings present on lymph vessels
at several places but more abundant in neck, chest, armpits, groins, tonsils, sub
maxillary area. Each lymph nodes are partitioned internally into channels. It also
possesses follicles having lymphocytes. Lymph nodes filter out microbes and
other antigens. The trapped antigens are acted upon by lymphocytes and
macrophages.
15. ANTIGENS Antigen is any foreign substance, toxin or particle or pathogen
which induces the immune system of the body to produce cells and antibodies to
dispose the same.
An antigen often has higher molecular mass of 8000 daltons or more. Antigenic
substances are generally proteins and polysaccharides. Pathogens function as antigens
because they possess either antigenic material on the surface or produce antigenic
toxins. Sites present over surface of antigen that are recognized by T- and B- cells and
antibodies are called ANTIGENIC DETERMINENTS OR EPITOPES. The regions
of antibodies and lymphocytes that function as receptors for epitopes are called
paratopes.
ANTIBODIES
They are glycoproteins, called immunoglobulins which have specific amino acid
sequences by which they can interact with specific antigens. Antibodies form 20%
plasma proteins.
STRUCTURE: -
Each antibody has a combination of atleast 2 light(L) and 2 heavy(H) polypeptide
chains(H2L2). The heavy chain has a large number of amino acids while a lighter
chain has smaller number of them. Usually, the polypeptide forms a Y-shaped
configuration. The stem of Y is exclusively formed by heavy chains. In the arms of
Y, both light and heavy chains occur parallel to each other except for antigen
binding sites. Attachments and bending occur by means of disulphide bonds( S S ).
In certain immunoglobulins the number of chain pairs can be 10. An antibody has
a variable portion in the arms. It is called the V-region or antigen binding fragment
Fab. The remainder of the antibody is called constant portion or crystalline fragment
Fc.
16. TYPES OF ANTIBODIES: -
1.IgA: -It is present in all body secretions including mother’s milk and colostrum.
Colostrum is thin, yellow protein and mineral rich early milk of the mother.
IgA is also called secretory immunoglobulin.
Take part in activating alternate pathway.
Form first line of defence against inhaled
and ingested pathogens.
Enables a person to fight against pathogens even before becoming sensitized.
Effective against a number of antigens, especially the ones containing
polysaccharides.
2. IgD:-It occurs in small quantities in serum tissue.
It is effective against toxins and allergens.
Along with IgM it appears on the surface of B-cells as
antigenic receptor.
IgD activates B-cells.
3.IgE: -The antibody is concentrated in mucous membranes, skin and lungs. It is
mediator in allergic response.
IgE triggers off immediate hypersensitive reactions on contact
with antigens. For this it attaches to basophils and mast cells.
The cells are induced to release histamine and other inflammatory
substances.
4.IgM: - It is largest of the antibodies but its small in number.
First to reach the site of infection.
It is pentamer, having ten binding
sites so it is highly effective.
17. 5.IgG: -
Constitute 75%.
Can pass through placenta and has is present
in mother’s milk.
Abundant in blood, lymph and intestine.
AUTOIMMUNITY
Memory based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based on the
ability to differentiate foreign organisms from self cells. Higher organisms can
distinguish foreign molecules as well as organisms. But sometimes due to genetic
and other unknown reasons, the body attack self cells. This results in damage to
the body and is called auto immune disease. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS is an
example.