This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, cardiac cycle, conduction system, blood supply and innervation of the heart. Key concepts covered are structure and function of different blood vessels, blood flow and pressure, electrocardiography, and regulation of heart rate and contractility.
CVS physiology, all details with explanation easy to recall physiology of cardiovascular system. based on Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. all the high-yield facts are there.
This document summarizes key concepts in cardiovascular physiology presented by Dr. Rashmit Shrestha. It discusses the circulatory system including the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It covers cardiac cycle, ventricular structure and function, factors affecting stroke volume, preload and afterload, contractility, and more. Key contributors to cardiovascular physiology like William Harvey are also acknowledged.
Anatomy, physiology & patophysiology of the cardiovascularCarlos Galiano
This document provides an overview of the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of the cardiovascular system as it relates to anesthesia. It discusses the structure and function of the heart and coronary circulation. It then covers topics such as cardiac cycle, hemodynamics, effects of the autonomic nervous system, and cardiovascular disorders including heart failure, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and cardiac tamponade. For each topic, it provides details on pathophysiology and considerations for anesthesia management.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology, including:
1) The anatomy of the heart and circulation of blood through the heart.
2) Electrical conduction system of the heart and the cardiac cycle.
3) Factors that can influence the cardiac cycle such as nerves, hormones, electrolytes.
4) Explanations of blood pressure, cardiac output, and factors influencing vascular function.
5) Some pathophysiologies that can occur in the cardiovascular system.
Hydrostatic pressure is exerted by a liquid at rest and is directly proportional to the height and density of the liquid column. The hydrostatic pressure of a liquid depends on its density and the local gravity. As hydrostatic pressure increases with height, the stream of water from a hole at the bottom of a container will travel farther than one at the top.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology. It begins with a brief history of the field and introduces the concept of the heart as a pump. It then discusses the anatomy of the heart including the chambers, valves, conduction system, and cardiac muscle structure. Next, it covers the autorhythmic pacemaker cells, cardiac action potentials, excitation-contraction coupling, and the cardiac cycle. It also discusses neural and hormonal control of the heart, coronary circulation, hemodynamic calculations, and cardiac reflexes.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and lies within the thoracic cavity. It is surrounded by membranes and has three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. The heart has four valves that ensure one-way blood flow. Blood flows from the sinoatrial node through the conduction system. The cardiovascular system is regulated through neural and hormonal mechanisms to control blood pressure and blood flow through the body.
Anatomy & Physiology of Cardiac system with Cardiac Assessment- Diagnostic In...DR .PALLAVI PATHANIA
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is an anatomical pump, with its intricate conduits (arteries, veins, and capillaries) that traverse the whole human body carrying blood. ... The pumping action of the heart usually maintains a balance between cardiac output and venous return.
CVS physiology, all details with explanation easy to recall physiology of cardiovascular system. based on Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. all the high-yield facts are there.
This document summarizes key concepts in cardiovascular physiology presented by Dr. Rashmit Shrestha. It discusses the circulatory system including the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It covers cardiac cycle, ventricular structure and function, factors affecting stroke volume, preload and afterload, contractility, and more. Key contributors to cardiovascular physiology like William Harvey are also acknowledged.
Anatomy, physiology & patophysiology of the cardiovascularCarlos Galiano
This document provides an overview of the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of the cardiovascular system as it relates to anesthesia. It discusses the structure and function of the heart and coronary circulation. It then covers topics such as cardiac cycle, hemodynamics, effects of the autonomic nervous system, and cardiovascular disorders including heart failure, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and cardiac tamponade. For each topic, it provides details on pathophysiology and considerations for anesthesia management.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology, including:
1) The anatomy of the heart and circulation of blood through the heart.
2) Electrical conduction system of the heart and the cardiac cycle.
3) Factors that can influence the cardiac cycle such as nerves, hormones, electrolytes.
4) Explanations of blood pressure, cardiac output, and factors influencing vascular function.
5) Some pathophysiologies that can occur in the cardiovascular system.
Hydrostatic pressure is exerted by a liquid at rest and is directly proportional to the height and density of the liquid column. The hydrostatic pressure of a liquid depends on its density and the local gravity. As hydrostatic pressure increases with height, the stream of water from a hole at the bottom of a container will travel farther than one at the top.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology. It begins with a brief history of the field and introduces the concept of the heart as a pump. It then discusses the anatomy of the heart including the chambers, valves, conduction system, and cardiac muscle structure. Next, it covers the autorhythmic pacemaker cells, cardiac action potentials, excitation-contraction coupling, and the cardiac cycle. It also discusses neural and hormonal control of the heart, coronary circulation, hemodynamic calculations, and cardiac reflexes.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and lies within the thoracic cavity. It is surrounded by membranes and has three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. The heart has four valves that ensure one-way blood flow. Blood flows from the sinoatrial node through the conduction system. The cardiovascular system is regulated through neural and hormonal mechanisms to control blood pressure and blood flow through the body.
Anatomy & Physiology of Cardiac system with Cardiac Assessment- Diagnostic In...DR .PALLAVI PATHANIA
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is an anatomical pump, with its intricate conduits (arteries, veins, and capillaries) that traverse the whole human body carrying blood. ... The pumping action of the heart usually maintains a balance between cardiac output and venous return.
The document summarizes key aspects of heart physiology:
- The heart pumps blood through two circuits and uses valves to ensure one-way blood flow.
- Cardiac muscle cells contract as a unit due to intercalated disks and gap junctions.
- The heart's conduction system uses specialized pacemaker cells and Purkinje fibers to coordinate contractions.
- An electrocardiogram tracks the heart's electrical activity during a cardiac cycle of atrial and ventricular filling/contraction.
The document summarizes cardiac physiology, including the cardiac cycle, electrical and mechanical events of the heart, ventricular structure and function, preload and afterload, cardiac output, the action potential, and neural control of cardiac function. Key points include a description of the cardiac cycle, how the electrocardiogram represents electrical events, factors that influence ventricular function like the Frank-Starling law, and how the autonomic nervous system regulates the heart through the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways.
The document discusses the cardiac cycle and its various phases. It describes that the cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. Systole is the contraction phase where the ventricles pump blood out, while diastole is the relaxation phase where the ventricles fill with blood. The cycle is further divided into atrial and ventricular events. Each phase of the cardiac cycle is defined along with its duration and significance in the overall heart function.
This document discusses cardiovascular physiology, beginning with an overview of the cardiac cycle and events in the cycle. It then covers determinants of myocardial performance including preload, afterload, contractility, and heart rate. Pressure-volume loops are introduced as a way to assess ventricular function. Physiological and pathological hypertrophy are compared. Key aspects covered include the Wiggers diagram, Frank-Starling mechanism, Anrep effect, Bowditch phenomenon, and formulas for calculating cardiac values.
The document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology, including:
1. It describes the basic components and regulation of the cardiovascular system, including the heart, vessels, and regulatory mechanisms.
2. It discusses the pulmonary and systemic circulations in terms of pressure, resistance, and flow.
3. It covers the structure and function of the heart as a pump, including cardiac cycle, regulation of contractility, and the Frank-Starling mechanism.
The document contains photographs and descriptions of the pulmonary valve viewed from above as it opens and closes. Figure 2A shows the valve partly open as blood flows from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk. Figure 2B shows the valve almost completely closed as the pressure in the pulmonary trunk is greater than in the right ventricle, forcing the valve cusps together.
The document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system. It discusses the location of the heart in the thoracic cavity near the diaphragm. It describes the layers of the heart including the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. It explains the chambers of the heart, heart valves, conduction system, cardiac cycle, regulation of heart rate and blood pressure, as well as the structure and function of blood vessels and factors affecting blood flow.
The document provides an overview of the cardiovascular system, including:
- The heart which consists of four chambers and pumps blood through two separate pumps to the lungs and body.
- Key structures of the heart including the pericardium, papillary muscles, chordae tendinae, and heart valves.
- The conduction system which generates electrical signals to coordinate heart contractions including the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, and Purkinje fibers.
- Blood flow through the heart in the normal cardiac cycle with events of ventricular filling, contraction and ejection.
Cardiovascular physiology REVISION NOTES TONY SCARIA
The document discusses cardiovascular physiology, specifically describing the cardiac cycle and regulation of blood pressure. It contains the following key points:
1. The cardiac cycle consists of ventricular systole and diastole. Systole includes isovolumic contraction, rapid ejection, and slow ejection phases. Diastole includes isovolumic relaxation and three filling phases.
2. Blood pressure is regulated rapidly by baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes, and over longer periods by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
3. Factors like preload, contractility, and afterload influence stroke volume and thus cardiac output according to Frank-Starling's law.
The document outlines a cardiovascular system course, covering anatomy and physiology of the heart and blood vessels, as well as history and assessment findings for cardiac diseases. Key topics include heart structure and function, blood supply, blood pressure control mechanisms, risk factors for heart disease, physical exam techniques, diagnostic tests, and common cardiac conditions such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, and infectious or inflammatory disorders of the heart.
The document discusses cardiac muscle and the physiology of the heart. It describes the structure of cardiac muscle including specialized excitatory and conductive fibers. It explains the cardiac muscle action potential and how it differs from other muscles. The cardiac cycle and its components are outlined including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole. The roles of preload and afterload on heart function are introduced.
The document provides an overview of cardiac anatomy and physiology. It discusses the functions of the heart including generating blood pressure, routing blood flow, and regulating blood supply. It describes the size, form, location, and external and internal anatomy of the heart including the atria, ventricles, valves, and blood flow route. It also summarizes the histology, electrical activity including action potentials and conduction system, cardiac cycle, and regulation of heart function.
1) The cardiac cycle describes the events of one complete heartbeat, including atrial contraction, ventricular contraction and relaxation.
2) The cardiac cycle begins with mid-to-late diastole as blood flows into the ventricles, followed by ventricular systole where the ventricles contract and push blood out.
3) Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute and is calculated by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume, which is the amount of blood pumped per ventricular contraction.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart weighs 200-400 grams and pumps around 7,751 litres of blood daily. It is located behind the sternum and is surrounded by membranes. Blood enters and exits the heart through major vessels while valves regulate flow between chambers. The heart muscle generates electrical impulses and contractions to circulate blood throughout the body. Cardiac output is regulated intrinsically through preload and afterload as well as extrinsically through the nervous and endocrine systems.
This document discusses the physiology of the heart. It begins by describing the different types of cardiac muscle and how cardiac muscle cells are interconnected. It then covers the cardiac cycle, including diastole and systole. Action potentials in cardiac muscle are longer than in skeletal muscle due to slow calcium channels. Contraction is triggered by calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular fluids. The heart pumps in two stages - the atria prime the ventricles, then the ventricles eject blood. Various waves in pressures, ECG, and sounds are related to the different cardiac cycle events.
The document summarizes the conduction system of the heart and the cardiac cycle. It discusses the following key points:
1. The heart's conduction system originates in specialized cardiac muscle cells called autorhythmic cells, which generate electrical impulses to initiate and coordinate heart contractions. The main structures of the conduction system are the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.
2. The cardiac cycle involves coordinated contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles. It begins with depolarization of the sinoatrial node, followed by atrial contraction, ventricular depolarization through the conduction system, ventricular contraction, and finally relaxation of both chambers.
The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It begins with spontaneous generation of an action potential in the sinus node which then spreads to the atria and ventricles. Each cycle consists of a diastolic phase where the heart relaxes and fills with blood, followed by a systolic phase where the heart contracts and pumps blood out. Key events include atrial systole, isovolumetric contraction, ventricular ejection, reduced ejection, isovolumetric relaxation, and rapid ventricular filling. The cycle repeats with each heartbeat to circulate blood through the body.
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through the circulatory system using repeated contractions. It has three layers - the outer epicardium, middle myocardium made of cardiac muscle that contracts, and inner endocardium. The human heart is divided into four chambers - left and right atria which receive blood, and left and right ventricles which pump blood. It uses two circuits - pulmonary circulation to lungs and systemic circulation to body. The sinoatrial node sets the heart's rhythm, contracting without nervous input.
The document provides an overview of the cardiovascular system, including the anatomy and physiology of the heart and blood vessels. It discusses the chambers of the heart, valves, coronary circulation, conduction system, and nerve supply. It also covers measurements of various pressures like mean arterial pressure, central venous pressure, and pulmonary artery pressure. Other topics include cardiac output, stroke volume, contractility, and the determinants of cardiac performance. Graphs of the cardiac cycle and Wigger's diagram are presented showing the mechanical events in systole and diastole.
1. El documento describe el concepto de posicionamiento, que se refiere a cómo se percibe un producto en la mente de los clientes potenciales. 2. Explica que debido a la sobrecomunicación, la mente humana rechaza gran parte de la información y sólo acepta lo que concuerda con sus conocimientos previos. 3. El posicionamiento busca manipular lo que ya está en la mente del cliente para que el producto ocupe una posición clara y única.
Este documento describe un proyecto llamado "La huertilla del Berzal" en una escuela infantil. El proyecto involucra la creación de un huerto escolar para enseñar a los niños sobre el medio ambiente, plantas, animales, alimentación saludable y trabajo en equipo. Los objetivos son desarrollar la autonomía de los niños, el conocimiento del entorno natural y las habilidades comunicativas.
The document summarizes key aspects of heart physiology:
- The heart pumps blood through two circuits and uses valves to ensure one-way blood flow.
- Cardiac muscle cells contract as a unit due to intercalated disks and gap junctions.
- The heart's conduction system uses specialized pacemaker cells and Purkinje fibers to coordinate contractions.
- An electrocardiogram tracks the heart's electrical activity during a cardiac cycle of atrial and ventricular filling/contraction.
The document summarizes cardiac physiology, including the cardiac cycle, electrical and mechanical events of the heart, ventricular structure and function, preload and afterload, cardiac output, the action potential, and neural control of cardiac function. Key points include a description of the cardiac cycle, how the electrocardiogram represents electrical events, factors that influence ventricular function like the Frank-Starling law, and how the autonomic nervous system regulates the heart through the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways.
The document discusses the cardiac cycle and its various phases. It describes that the cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. Systole is the contraction phase where the ventricles pump blood out, while diastole is the relaxation phase where the ventricles fill with blood. The cycle is further divided into atrial and ventricular events. Each phase of the cardiac cycle is defined along with its duration and significance in the overall heart function.
This document discusses cardiovascular physiology, beginning with an overview of the cardiac cycle and events in the cycle. It then covers determinants of myocardial performance including preload, afterload, contractility, and heart rate. Pressure-volume loops are introduced as a way to assess ventricular function. Physiological and pathological hypertrophy are compared. Key aspects covered include the Wiggers diagram, Frank-Starling mechanism, Anrep effect, Bowditch phenomenon, and formulas for calculating cardiac values.
The document provides an overview of cardiovascular physiology, including:
1. It describes the basic components and regulation of the cardiovascular system, including the heart, vessels, and regulatory mechanisms.
2. It discusses the pulmonary and systemic circulations in terms of pressure, resistance, and flow.
3. It covers the structure and function of the heart as a pump, including cardiac cycle, regulation of contractility, and the Frank-Starling mechanism.
The document contains photographs and descriptions of the pulmonary valve viewed from above as it opens and closes. Figure 2A shows the valve partly open as blood flows from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk. Figure 2B shows the valve almost completely closed as the pressure in the pulmonary trunk is greater than in the right ventricle, forcing the valve cusps together.
The document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system. It discusses the location of the heart in the thoracic cavity near the diaphragm. It describes the layers of the heart including the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. It explains the chambers of the heart, heart valves, conduction system, cardiac cycle, regulation of heart rate and blood pressure, as well as the structure and function of blood vessels and factors affecting blood flow.
The document provides an overview of the cardiovascular system, including:
- The heart which consists of four chambers and pumps blood through two separate pumps to the lungs and body.
- Key structures of the heart including the pericardium, papillary muscles, chordae tendinae, and heart valves.
- The conduction system which generates electrical signals to coordinate heart contractions including the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, and Purkinje fibers.
- Blood flow through the heart in the normal cardiac cycle with events of ventricular filling, contraction and ejection.
Cardiovascular physiology REVISION NOTES TONY SCARIA
The document discusses cardiovascular physiology, specifically describing the cardiac cycle and regulation of blood pressure. It contains the following key points:
1. The cardiac cycle consists of ventricular systole and diastole. Systole includes isovolumic contraction, rapid ejection, and slow ejection phases. Diastole includes isovolumic relaxation and three filling phases.
2. Blood pressure is regulated rapidly by baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes, and over longer periods by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
3. Factors like preload, contractility, and afterload influence stroke volume and thus cardiac output according to Frank-Starling's law.
The document outlines a cardiovascular system course, covering anatomy and physiology of the heart and blood vessels, as well as history and assessment findings for cardiac diseases. Key topics include heart structure and function, blood supply, blood pressure control mechanisms, risk factors for heart disease, physical exam techniques, diagnostic tests, and common cardiac conditions such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, and infectious or inflammatory disorders of the heart.
The document discusses cardiac muscle and the physiology of the heart. It describes the structure of cardiac muscle including specialized excitatory and conductive fibers. It explains the cardiac muscle action potential and how it differs from other muscles. The cardiac cycle and its components are outlined including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole. The roles of preload and afterload on heart function are introduced.
The document provides an overview of cardiac anatomy and physiology. It discusses the functions of the heart including generating blood pressure, routing blood flow, and regulating blood supply. It describes the size, form, location, and external and internal anatomy of the heart including the atria, ventricles, valves, and blood flow route. It also summarizes the histology, electrical activity including action potentials and conduction system, cardiac cycle, and regulation of heart function.
1) The cardiac cycle describes the events of one complete heartbeat, including atrial contraction, ventricular contraction and relaxation.
2) The cardiac cycle begins with mid-to-late diastole as blood flows into the ventricles, followed by ventricular systole where the ventricles contract and push blood out.
3) Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute and is calculated by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume, which is the amount of blood pumped per ventricular contraction.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart weighs 200-400 grams and pumps around 7,751 litres of blood daily. It is located behind the sternum and is surrounded by membranes. Blood enters and exits the heart through major vessels while valves regulate flow between chambers. The heart muscle generates electrical impulses and contractions to circulate blood throughout the body. Cardiac output is regulated intrinsically through preload and afterload as well as extrinsically through the nervous and endocrine systems.
This document discusses the physiology of the heart. It begins by describing the different types of cardiac muscle and how cardiac muscle cells are interconnected. It then covers the cardiac cycle, including diastole and systole. Action potentials in cardiac muscle are longer than in skeletal muscle due to slow calcium channels. Contraction is triggered by calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular fluids. The heart pumps in two stages - the atria prime the ventricles, then the ventricles eject blood. Various waves in pressures, ECG, and sounds are related to the different cardiac cycle events.
The document summarizes the conduction system of the heart and the cardiac cycle. It discusses the following key points:
1. The heart's conduction system originates in specialized cardiac muscle cells called autorhythmic cells, which generate electrical impulses to initiate and coordinate heart contractions. The main structures of the conduction system are the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.
2. The cardiac cycle involves coordinated contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles. It begins with depolarization of the sinoatrial node, followed by atrial contraction, ventricular depolarization through the conduction system, ventricular contraction, and finally relaxation of both chambers.
The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It begins with spontaneous generation of an action potential in the sinus node which then spreads to the atria and ventricles. Each cycle consists of a diastolic phase where the heart relaxes and fills with blood, followed by a systolic phase where the heart contracts and pumps blood out. Key events include atrial systole, isovolumetric contraction, ventricular ejection, reduced ejection, isovolumetric relaxation, and rapid ventricular filling. The cycle repeats with each heartbeat to circulate blood through the body.
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through the circulatory system using repeated contractions. It has three layers - the outer epicardium, middle myocardium made of cardiac muscle that contracts, and inner endocardium. The human heart is divided into four chambers - left and right atria which receive blood, and left and right ventricles which pump blood. It uses two circuits - pulmonary circulation to lungs and systemic circulation to body. The sinoatrial node sets the heart's rhythm, contracting without nervous input.
The document provides an overview of the cardiovascular system, including the anatomy and physiology of the heart and blood vessels. It discusses the chambers of the heart, valves, coronary circulation, conduction system, and nerve supply. It also covers measurements of various pressures like mean arterial pressure, central venous pressure, and pulmonary artery pressure. Other topics include cardiac output, stroke volume, contractility, and the determinants of cardiac performance. Graphs of the cardiac cycle and Wigger's diagram are presented showing the mechanical events in systole and diastole.
1. El documento describe el concepto de posicionamiento, que se refiere a cómo se percibe un producto en la mente de los clientes potenciales. 2. Explica que debido a la sobrecomunicación, la mente humana rechaza gran parte de la información y sólo acepta lo que concuerda con sus conocimientos previos. 3. El posicionamiento busca manipular lo que ya está en la mente del cliente para que el producto ocupe una posición clara y única.
Este documento describe un proyecto llamado "La huertilla del Berzal" en una escuela infantil. El proyecto involucra la creación de un huerto escolar para enseñar a los niños sobre el medio ambiente, plantas, animales, alimentación saludable y trabajo en equipo. Los objetivos son desarrollar la autonomía de los niños, el conocimiento del entorno natural y las habilidades comunicativas.
A empresa de tecnologia anunciou um novo smartphone com câmera aprimorada, maior tela e melhor desempenho. O dispositivo também possui um preço mais acessível em comparação aos modelos anteriores para atrair mais consumidores. O lançamento ocorrerá no próximo mês e a empresa espera que o novo smartphone ajude a aumentar suas vendas e participação no mercado.
Certificate ratings are important to indicate what types of content are appropriate for different age groups of viewers. Younger children could be frightened or copy violent behavior if they see inappropriate films. The document then describes the different rating categories in the UK (U, PG, 12A, 15, 18) and what types of content each allows, such as violence, language, sexual content and drug use. It concludes by stating that the author's horror film would receive a 15 rating due to its graphic violent scenes, but not an 18 rating since it will not include much strong language, violence or behavior.
Este documento presenta los objetivos y contenidos de una guía de anatomía del tórax. Los objetivos incluyen describir la topografía del tórax, identificar los elementos de las paredes torácicas, las cavidades torácica y pleurales, el mediastino y la cavidad pericárdica. También incluye identificar los pulmones, corazón, vasos, nervios y diafragma. El documento procede a detallar los órganos y elementos que deben ser estudiados, incluyendo la osteología del tórax
La obra de teatro "Mañana será diferente" aborda el tema del bullying escolar. La obra busca que estudiantes y profesores reconozcan su rol en generar un cambio en el trato entre pares y adoptar nuevas prácticas de tolerancia. La obra ha tenido funciones en varias comunas de Santiago con apoyo del gobierno regional, logrando profundizar la discusión sobre temas juveniles y la implementación de políticas de prevención.
Este documento presenta una introducción a la historia de la prehistoria. Explica que la historia estudia el pasado de la humanidad y cómo vivían en sociedad, lo que nos ayuda a entender nuestra identidad. Luego describe las eras de la prehistoria y la Revolución Neolítica hace 10,000 años cuando los humanos comenzaron a cultivar cereales y volverse sedentarios, lo que llevó a un aumento de la población y la complejidad social con nuevos oficios y cultos.
Este documento ofrece consejos para crear una página web exitosa, incluyendo considerar las necesidades del cliente y los usuarios, elegir un tema de interés popular, asegurarse de tener permiso para usar imágenes y contenido, y proporcionar enlaces y navegación fácil entre páginas. También recomienda evitar errores comunes de diseño como letras pequeñas o fondos complicados y utilizar herramientas gratuitas para hospedar el sitio web.
Voorspelt het label de boom? (vierde vastenzondag A)Ten Bos
Teksten en liederen die geprojecteerd werden op Ten Bos tijdens de vierde vastenzondag (A) 2017 (Sint Amanduskerk Erembodegem). De teksten van onze vieringen zijn te vinden op de website: http://www.kerkembodegem.be/tenbos/liturgie/vieringen.html
This document provides an overview of the human respiratory system. It discusses the key components of the respiratory system including the lungs, respiratory tract, respiratory muscles, and respiratory centers in the brain. It describes the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration, including how contraction of inspiratory muscles decreases intrathoracic pressure and draws air into the lungs. Compliance and surfactant are also discussed as they relate to lung elasticity and prevention of lung collapse during expiration.
This document defines and describes various dental restoration and prosthetic terms. It discusses direct and indirect dental restorations that restore lost tooth structure and function. It also defines dental appliances, crowns, bridges, partial dentures, and complete dentures. Key components of partial dentures like bases, connectors, clasps, and rests are outlined. Important definitions for terms like flow, viscosity, onlay, adhesion, cohesion, tarnishing, and corrosion are also provided.
The cardiovascular system begins forming early in embryonic development as endothelial cells cluster together to form the endocardial tube. This tube develops layers and partitions, forming the basic structures of the heart including chambers, valves and blood vessels. As the embryo grows, the heart continues developing structures and taking on its mature four-chambered shape within the thoracic cavity. The cardiovascular system functions to deliver oxygenated blood and remove deoxygenated blood throughout the body via the continuous closed circuit of the heart and blood vessels.
This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, blood flow, and the conduction system that coordinates heart contractions. Key points covered include histology and functions of the three layers of blood vessels, properties of arteries and veins, factors influencing blood pressure, coronary blood supply to the heart, cardiac cycle, electrocardiography, and how the heart rate is regulated.
This document discusses cardiac output and the factors that regulate it. Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart each minute and is determined by heart rate and stroke volume. Stroke volume is influenced by three main factors: preload, contractility, and afterload. Preload refers to the stretching of the heart before contraction and is represented by end-diastolic volume; increased preload results in increased stroke volume according to the Frank-Starling law. Contractility is the strength of ventricular contraction independent of preload; increased contractility also increases stroke volume. Afterload is the resistance against which the heart must pump during contraction; increased afterload decreases stroke volume. The relationship between cardiac output and these factors can
This document provides an overview of dental terminology used to describe the anatomy of teeth. It discusses the surfaces, lines, angles, depressions and elevations found on teeth. Key terms covered include the crown, root, cemento-enamel junction, and facial, lingual, mesial, distal, and incisal/occlusal surfaces. The document also describes how teeth are divided into thirds for study and communication purposes.
The nervous system functions to receive information from the environment, integrate and analyze it, generate signals, and conduct neural messages to tissues that respond. It is divided into the central nervous system (CNS; brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS is further divided and includes somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Neurons can be unipolar, multipolar, or bipolar depending on their structure. A neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus, dendrites that receive signals, and an axon that conducts signals. The axon is surrounded by a myelin sheath formed by neuroglia including oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Neuroglia also include
This document contains summaries and labeled microscope images from the Histology Department of Cairo University's Faculty of Medicine. The images show nerve trunks, spinal ganglia, and sympathetic ganglia stained with hematoxylin and eosin as well as other stains like osmic acid and silver. Labels identify structures like the perineurium, epineurium, nerve fibers, blood vessels, satellite cells and nerve cell types.
This document discusses the histology of nervous tissue. It describes the structure of a typical motor neuron, including its nucleus, Nissl body, and processes. It also shows images of the longitudinal section of a peripheral nerve, highlighting features like the node of Ranvier, myelin sheath, and endoneurium. The nerve is surrounded by connective tissue wrappings including the perineurium.
Cardiac output, blood flow, and blood pressureChy Yong
This document discusses cardiac output, blood flow, and blood pressure. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle, which is determined by heart rate and stroke volume. Stroke volume depends on factors like preload, contractility, and afterload. The document also discusses regulation of heart rate and contractility by the autonomic nervous system as well as intrinsic properties like the Frank-Starling law. Additional topics covered include blood volume, factors influencing blood flow, vascular resistance, blood pressure regulation via baroreceptors, and measurement of blood pressure.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the heart. It describes the heart's location in the chest, its chambers, valves and blood vessels. The four chambers of the heart (right and left atria and ventricles) are separated by valves that ensure one-way blood flow. Blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium, then is pumped into the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through pulmonary veins. It then passes to the left ventricle and out the body through the aorta. The heart's rhythm is regulated by its electrical conduction system.
The document describes the anatomy and structure of the human heart. It details the four chambers of the heart - the right and left atria which receive blood, and the right and left ventricles which pump blood out. It describes the heart valves between the chambers that prevent backflow of blood. It also discusses the layers of the heart wall, the blood supply to the heart muscles via coronary arteries, and the specialized cardiac muscle cells that make up the heart.
This document provides an overview of the embryological development and anatomy of arteries and veins in the head and neck region. It discusses the formation of blood and aortic arches in early embryonic development. It then describes the course, branches, and clinical relevance of major arteries like the common carotid artery, external carotid artery, internal carotid artery, and branches including the lingual, facial, and superior thyroid arteries. It also briefly outlines the structure and differences between arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers - the right and left atria receive blood, and the right and left ventricles pump blood out. Blood flows through arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed circuit. The heart is a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle that is located in the chest cavity. It is surrounded by membranes and tissues that protect it. Valves ensure blood flows in only one direction through the heart and vessels.
The circulatory system transports fluids throughout the body;
it consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
The heart and blood vessels make up the blood transportation network, the cardiovascular system.
Through this system, the heart pumps blood through the body’s vast system of blood vessels.
The blood carries nutrients, oxygen, and waste products to and from the cells.
VASCULAR CIRCUITS
The heart consists of two muscular pumps dividing the circulation into two components:
pulmonary circulations
systemic circulations or circuit
Pulmonary Circulation
Rt ventricle propels low O2 blood into the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
CO2 is exchanged for O2 in the capillaries of the lungs.
Then the O2 -rich blood is returned via the pulmonary veins to the Lft atrium.
This circuit, from the right ventricle through the lungs to the left atrium, is the pulmonary circulation.
Systemic Circulation
Left ventricle propels the O2 -rich blood through systemic arteries (the aorta and its branches),
exchanging O2 and nutrients for CO2 in the remainder of the body’s capillaries.
Low- O2 blood returns to right atrium via systemic veins (tributaries of the superior and inferior vena cava).
This circuit, from left ventricle to right atrium, is the systemic circulation.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through the blood vessels. It is surrounded by layers including the outer fibrous pericardium, middle myocardial muscle layer, and inner endocardial lining. Blood flows from the heart through arteries and arterioles, into capillaries where gas exchange occurs, and returns to the heart through veins and venules. Valves in the heart and vessels ensure one-way blood flow. The cardiovascular system circulates blood to supply the body with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps oxygenated blood received from the lungs into the main artery (aorta) and deoxygenated blood received from the body into the pulmonary artery to be sent to the lungs. Blood flows through two circulations - systemic circulation where blood is pumped from the heart to the body and pulmonary circulation where blood travels from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated. The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste through arteries, veins and capillaries to keep the body functioning properly.
Anatomy and physiology of heart, lung ,ligi xavier
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The document discusses the cardiovascular system and factors that influence heart disease. It begins by describing the vital functions of the heart and blood vessels in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body. It then explains the four main components of blood - plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets - and their respective roles. Finally, it provides an overview of blood flow, blood pressure, blood vessel anatomy and the layers comprising arteries.
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The cardiovascular system allows blood to circulate oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. It consists of the heart and blood vessels.
The heart has four chambers and uses valves to ensure one-way blood flow. It is surrounded by layers including the pericardium. The heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, initiates electrical signals that cause coordinated contractions of the atria and ventricles. Blood is pumped from the heart through arteries to the lungs and body.
Cardiac muscle cells contract in response to changes in electrical potential across their membranes. This allows for coordinated pumping of blood throughout the cardiovascular system.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and network of blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body. The heart pumps blood in a continuous cycle called the cardiac cycle. Blood is carried away from the heart through arteries and returns to the heart through veins, passing through capillaries where nutrients and gases are exchanged. The cardiovascular system can be affected by congenital heart defects present from birth or conditions like heart failure that impair the heart's ability to pump effectively.
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1. LECTURE NOTE
ON
BASIC CARDIOVASULAR PHYSIOLOGY
BY
MJ ADENIYI, MSC
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, BENIN-CITY
NIGERIA
7jimade@gmail.com (+234 08066796517)
3/22/2017
2. INTRODUCTION
The cardiovascular system consists majorly of tubular structures called blood
vessels and a muscular organ called the heart.
BLOOD VESSELS
Histologically, blood vessels are made up of three layers; the tunica
adventitia (outer layer), the tunica media (middle layer) and the tunica intima
(the innermost layer).
The tunica adventitia is composed of protein fibers such as elastin and
collagen. These afford flexibility, shape and strength to the vessels.
The tunica media is made up of multi-unit smooth muscle. Vagal and
sympathetic stimulations of this layer bring about relaxation and constriction.
3/22/2017
3. Continuation
The tunica intima is in contact with vascular fluid and contains a single layer of
endothelial cells. Endothelial cells play important role in the control of vascular
permeability and escape of macromolecules into microcirculation as occurs in
extravasation, fluid shift and inflammation. They secrete chemical messengers such
as nitric oxide (vasodilators) and endothelins (vasoconstrictors) and endothelial
derived growth factors.
ARTERIES
Arteries are vessels that conduct oxygen –rich blood (oxygenated blood) except
pulmonary and umbilical arteries from the heart to the body tissues.
Between the tunica adventitia and tunica media is elastic band rich in elastin.
3/22/2017
4. Continuation
Arteries have no valves except pulmonary artery and aorta.
Arteries have thick walls and smaller luminal diameter than veins.
They are the most flexible vessels. Increase in the diameter of arterial blood
vessel is called vasodilation and decrease in diameter is called vasoconstriction.
As the diameter of arteries increases, their tendency to oppose blood flow
(Peripheral vascular resistance) decreases and vice versa.
Old age and medical condition such as atherosclerosis bring about decrease
in the elasticity of arteries.
The lateral pressure exerted by contained column of blood on the arterial
vessel is termed Arterial Blood Pressure.
Arteries divide into smaller units called arterioles.
3/22/2017
5. Figure 1:Blood vessels (Adapted from Review of Medical Physiology)
Continuation
3/22/2017
6. Continuation
Arterioles are the site of resistance because they are narrower than arteries
and they have more tunica media. Contraction of arterioles raises peripheral
vascular resistance and reduces blood flow to the capillaries. They are
therefore called resistance blood vessel.
VEINS
Blood conduits to the heart.
They have higher luminal diameter than arteries. Therefore they can hold
more blood. They are called capacitance blood vessel. Phlebotomy is
possible because of this reason and because of their superficial location.
3/22/2017
7. Continuation
Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood except pulmonary and umbilical veins.
Veins have valves. Contraction of muscles causes the proximal valve to open
resulting in movement of blood into the heart. The rate at which venous blood
reaches the right and left atria is called venous return. Occlusion of veins
probably due to positive intrathoracic pressure as occurs during expiration
reduces venous return and vice versa.
Inflammation of veins is called phlebitis. Like arteries, air bubbles and clots
can block the vascular lumen resulting in ischemia (reduction in tissue
perfusion).
Veins are made up of smaller units called venules.
3/22/2017
8. CAPILLARIES
The smallest blood vessels but with the greatest total cross sectional area.
Depleted of tunica adventitia and tunica media.
Forms an interface with the body cells.
The diameter is 5µm at the arterial end and 9µm at the venous end (see Fig.
1).
Formation and reabsorption of interstitial fluid depend on interplay of
starling forces; the capillary hydrostatic pressure(CHP) and capillary oncotic
pressure (COP). For interstitial fluid to be formed, CHP at arterial end >COP
and for reabsorption, CHP at venous end<COP.
3/22/2017
9. Continuation
CHP at arterial end is 30mmHg, CHP at venous end is 15mmHg and
COP is 25mmHg at both ends. Therefore, a pressure of 5mmHg favours
formation while a pressure of 10mmHg favours reabsorption. Decreased in
oncotic pressure due to liver diseases brings about increased risk of edema.
COP at venous end increases in congestive heart failure and pulmonary heart
disease resulting in increased chance of edema.
Carbon dioxide rich blood is returned from parts above and below the
heart by superior and inferior venacava.
Oxygen rich blood leaves the heart through aorta. A force is required to
drive blood to different regions of the body. This force is termed Arterial
Blood Pressure.
3/22/2017
11. HEART
The heart is a muscular wedge shaped organ.
Weighs about 300g and larger in adult male than adult female.
Located in the middle midiastinum between T5 and T8 vertebral
segments.
It has 5 surfaces; anterior surface formed by right ventricle, posterior
surface formed by left atrium, right pulmonary surface formed by right
atrium, left pulmonary surface formed by left ventricle and diaphragmatic
surface formed by right and left ventricles.
3/22/2017
12. continuation
It has 4 borders; superior border by right and left atria, inferior border by right
and left ventricles, right border by right atrium and right ventricle and left border
by left atrium and left ventricle.
The heart is made up of three layers; the outer layer called the pericardium, the
middle layer called the myocardium and the inner layer called the endocardium.
The pericardium consists of the fibrous parietal and the inner visceral layer. In
between these layers is a space filled with a serous fluid. The fluid reduces friction
when the layers rub against each other as occurs during the cardiac cycle. The
fluid is reabsorbed into the circulation. Accumulation of this fluid in this space
occurs in pericarditis. Cardiac tamponade occurs when the accumulated fluid
within the pericardium results in deranged tendency of the heart to stretch during
diastole.
3/22/2017
13. Continuation
The myocardium consists of cardiac muscle and a specialized tissues that
constitute the conduction system of the heart.
The endocardium lines the cavity of the heart.
The heart exhibits a mechanism through which it drives blood into the
systemic circulation. This mechanism is known as the heartbeat. An average
heart beat is 72/min. In a day, the heart beats 10,000times.
The type of circulation in human beings is closed circulation.
Circulations of blood between the heart and lungs and between the heart
and aorta are known as pulmonary and systemic circulations respectively.
3/22/2017
14. The heart has blood flow controlling structures called valves.
Examples are;
-Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid valve between right atrium and right
ventricle auscultated at the left fifth intercostal space and bicuspid or
mitral valve between left atrium and left ventricle auscultated at the left
fifth intercostal space along mid-clavicular line).
- Semilunar valve (aortic valve between left ventricle and aorta
auscultated at the right 2nd costal cartilage and pulmonary valve between
right ventricle and pulmonary valve auscultated at the left 2nd costal
cartilage). Semilunar valves are tricuspid.
3/22/2017
15. BLOOD SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE
The heart is supplied by coronary arteries.
The right coronary artery (RCA) arises from anterior aortic sinus and left
coronary artery (LCA) from left posterior aortic sinus.
RCA supplies the right side of the heart and LCA, the left side.
RCA branches into right marginal artery and posterior interventricular artery.
The former supplies the superficial part of the right side of the heart and the
latter branches into nodal artery that supplies conductive tissues (2/3 of the AV
node). RCA also supplies the other parts of the right side of the heart including
1/3 of the interventricular septum.
RCA unites (anastomosis) with the circumflex artery at the coronary sulcus.
3/22/2017
16. Continuation
The anastomosis of the heart is anatomical not a functional type and
therefore, narrowing of the arterial vessels supplying the heart could result in
myocardial infarction.
LCA supplies the left side of the heart.
LCA gives rise to anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery.
Anterior interventricular artery supplies the remaining 2/3 of the
interventricular septum.
Circumflex artery branches into nodal artery that supplies the remaining 1/3
of AV node.
Circumflex artery branches into left marginal artery which supplies the
superficial part of the left side of the heart.
3/22/2017
17. Continuation
Anterior interventricular artery unites with posterior interventricular
artery at the interventricular groove.
The right and left septal branches also unite at interventricular septum.
The myocardium receives arterial supply during diastole.
The proportion of the cardiac output received by the heart is 4.8%.
Venous drainage is through small, middle and great cardiac veins. These
veins drain into the right atrium through coronary sinus.
Lymphatic drainage is by tracheobronchial lymph node.
3/22/2017
18. NERVOUS SUPPLY
The heart is innervated by sympathetic (adrenergic) fibers and
parasympathetic (vagal) fibers.
Adrenergic nerve fiber to the heart is epicardial. Stimulation of β1 and β2
adrenergic receptors results in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (CAMP)-
mediated increase in force of contraction (positive inotropic action) and
increase in heart rate (positive chronotropic action).
Vagal fibers are subendocardial. Stimulation of muscarinic cholinergic
receptor (M2 receptors) causes CAMP-mediated decrease in heart rate
Reciprocal innervation occurs in the heart.
3/22/2017
19. Figure 3: electrical events of the cardiac muscle (Adapted from Review
of Medical Physiology)
3/22/2017
20. Figure 4: electrical events of the pacemaker tissue (Adapted from Review of
Medical Physiology)
3/22/2017
21. PACEMAKER AND CARDIAC MUSCLE
POTENTIALS
Influx of sodium ions contributes to the first phase
of pacemaker potential and such channels are called
H channels.
Influx of calcium ions through slow opening
calcium channel is responsible for the pacemaker
action potential.
3/22/2017
22. As far as cardiac muscle is concerned, depolarization
is due to influx of sodium ions through the fast
opening sodium channels.
Initial repolarization is due to inactivation of sodium
channels.
Plateau is due to influx of slow opening calcium
channels.
Hyperpolarization is due to net efflux of potassium
channels.
3/22/2017
23. CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF
THE HEART
Denervation of the heart does not make the heart to stop beating.
This is due to the presence of specialized tissue called sinoatrial node
(SA node), the primary pacemaker tissue located in the right atrium at
the opening of superior venacava which is capable of generating
electrical impulses spontaneously at a higher rate.
Impulses from SA node spreads to the AV node (located in posterior
interatrial septum) through purkinje typed internodal tract (which
include the anterior fibers of bachman, middle fibers of wenchebach
and posterior fibers of thorel).
3/22/2017
25. continuation
In the AV node, conduction is slow (0.05m/s). This known as AV
nodal delay allows atrial contraction to precede ventricular contraction.
It also allows ventricular filling to precede ventricular ejection.
Impulses from AV bode reach the left and right ventricle through left
bundle of His and right bundle of His.
The bundle of His and the branches transmit impulses to rapidly
conducting purkinje fibers (4m/s) which run subendocardially and end
on myocardial cells.
3/22/2017
26. Continuation
Depolarization begins at the left side of interventricular
septum and spreads towards the right side.
Impulses converge on the apex of the heart (located in the
left V intercostal space along the mid-clavicular line).
Pulmonary conus and the posterior basal portion of the
interventricular septum are the last parts to be depolarized
3/22/2017
28. The recording of the electrical activities of the
heart taken from the surface of the body is called
electrocardiogram.
Invented by Willem Einthoven.
There are three bipolar (standard) limb leads and
nine unipolar leads ( 3 augumented limb leads
and 6 precordial leads or chest leads).
3/22/2017
29. Converts electrical impulses to understandable language
(ECG waves).
The amplitude and duration of ECG waves have a wide
clinical implication.
P wave (0.1s, 0.1mV) is due to atrial depolarization.
QRS (0.08s)complex is due to ventricular depolarization.
T (0.32s) wave is due to ventricular repolarization.
ECG intervals includes PR (0.18-0.2s) interval, measures
the spread of electrical activities from atria to ventricles.
3/22/2017
30. QT interval (0.42s) measures the spread of electrical
activities through ventricle.
R-R interval is d interval btw the peak of two adjacent
ECG waves. Exercise, emotion shortens it.
Heart rate=300/no of large boxes between R-R interval
or 10 x ECG cycles in a 6 s strip.
ST interval is isoelectric. Elevation occurs in myocardial
infarction and depression is seen in myocardial ischemia.
3/22/2017
35. Figure 10; ECG recorded from the three augumented
limb leads
3/22/2017
36. APPLICATIONS
ECG changes with change in heart rate
Figure 11; sinus bradycardia (LEAD III) short R-R interval
SINUS TACHYCARDIA (LEAD I) short R-R interval
3/22/2017
37. HEART BLOCK (PROLONGED PR INTERVAL)
Figure 12; Applications of ECG
3/22/2017
MYOCARDIA ISCHEMIA (DEPRESSED ST SEGMENT)
38. MECHANICAL EVENTS OF THE HEART
Cardiac cycle is a coordinated sequence of mechanical
events during each heart beat.
It is 0.8 seconds at normal heart beat and decreased by
sympathetic stimulation.
Consists of diastole (.53s) and systole (.27).
Diastole consists of protodiastole, atrial systole,
isometric relaxation and filling phases.
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39. ECG waves Implications
Atrial depolarization (P waves) Atrial contraction ( atrial systole)
Ventricular depolarization (QRS) Ventricular contraction (systole)
Ventricular repolarization (T waves) Ventricular relaxation
Atrial repolarization merges with QRS complex on an ECG strip.
Atrial repolarization produces atrial relaxation or atrial diastole.
Systole consists of isometric contraction and ejection period.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
Cardiac output is the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute. It is
about 5L/min.
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40. Continuation.
According to Frank-Starling law, Cardiac output=Stroke volume x Heart
rate
Heart rate is the number of beats produced by the heart per minute.
It represents the number of times left ventricle contracts to eject blood per
minute.
Originates from the sinoatrial node.
It is about 72 beats/minutes in adult man at rest and this is called sinus
rhythm.
Increased and depressed by sympathetic and vagal stimulation respectively.
Actions relating to heart rate and force of contraction are called chronotropic
and inotropic actions respectively.
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41. Heart rate (HR) is controlled in the medulla by dorsal motor nucleus
and nucleus ambiguus.
Decrease and increase in heart rate originating from SA node are called
sinus bradycardia and sinus tachycardia.
Sleep may lead to sinus bradycardia.
Pregnancy, exercise and anxiety may lead to sinus tachycardia.
Pulsation is the use of sense of touch to judge the heart rate in
peripheral arteries. Or the palpation of heart rate in arteries that are
constricted by bone using a well trained fingertips.
Pulse rate is the number of times arteries oscillate per minute.
HR may be more than pulse rate. This is known as pulsus deficit.
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42. PULSATION SITES
Pulse can be felt in
Superficial temporal artery
Facial artery
Right and left common carotid arteries
Apex of the heart
Brachial artery
Radial artery
Femoral artery
Popliteal artery
Dorsal pedalis artery
Posterior tibial artery
Fontanels in neonates
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43. FACTORS AFFECTING
PULSE RATE
Age; Pulse rate is higher in neonate than old people.
Sex; Pubertal males have higher pulse rate than female.
State of activity; exercise increases pulse rate, sleep decreases pulse
rate.
Anxiety increases pulse rate.
In pregnancy, there is increase in pulse rate.
Circadian variation; it is higher in day than night.
Temperature: high temperature increases pulse rate.
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44. Continuation
End diastolic volume or preload is the amount of blood in each ventricle at
the end of diastole. It is 130ml. In restrictive cardiomyopathy, it may be
greatly reduced.
Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per beat.
It is 70ml/beat.
Stroke volume is affected by contractility, End diastolic volume, peripheral
resistance, etc.
Stroke volume/End diastolic volume =Ejection fraction. i.e 70/130x100%
Ejection fraction is 45-60%. In congestive cardiomyopathy, the fraction
may be lower than 40%.
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45. FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT (CO)
Posture; sudden standing decreases CO. In untrained people, prolonged standing
exacerbates the decrease. Suppination and pronation have no effect.
Muscular exercise increases co
Hemorrhage most especially heavy hemorrhage and chronic light hemorrhage
decreases co
Obesity and large body surface area increase co
Negative intrathoracic pressure (eg inspiration) increases co and positive
intrathoracic pressure decreases it
Anatomical anomaly like kyphosis may decrease co.
Dietary factor (as in high salt) intake increases co
Emotion such as anxiety increases co
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46. HEART SOUNDS
Noises (vibrations) produced by heartbeat,
valvular closure, flow of blood and arterial elastic
recoil.
The noises reflect turbulence flow of blood.
Heart sounds can be measured by stethoscope
and other devices.
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47. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
There are four heart sounds.
The first heart sound S1 is due majorly to the
vibration set up by the simultaneous closure of the
atrioventricular valves.
It is long, soft and low pitched resembling the word
“LUB”.
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48. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
It is 25-40HZ in frequency and 10-17s . It has mitral and
tricuspid components.
Second heart sound S2 is high pitched and short resembling
the word ‘DUB’.
Has aortic and pulmonary components.
Second heart sound S2 is due to vibrations set up by the
sudden closure of semilunar valves.
I
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49. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
S1 and S2 can be measured using stethoscope.
S3 and S4 are extra heartbeat. They are low
pitched.
S3 is soft.
Occurrence of S3 is pathological in people above
40 years.
Occurrence of S4 is pathological.
S4 is also low pitched and soft.
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50. ABNORMAL HEART SOUNDS
Murmurs are abnormal noises generated within the
cardiovascular system.
Abnormal noises produced outside the
cardiovascular system are called bruits.
Murmurs may be due to valvular incompetence
(weak valves leading to regurgitation of blood) and
stenosis (narrowing).
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51. ABNORMAL HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
Diastolic murmurs are due to incompetence of
semilunar valve, stenosis of atrioventricular valve,
and anemia.
Systolic murmurs are due to incompetence of the
atrioventricular valve and stenosis of semilunar
valve.
Continuous murmurs are due to patent ductus
arteriosus.
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52. BLOOD PRESSURE (BP) AND ITS REGULATION
The lateral pressure exerted by a contained column of blood
on the heart.
Measured non-invasively via sphygmomanometer using
procedure that was invented by Nicolai Korotkoff.
BP is expressed as systolic blood pressure (SBP)/diastolic
blood pressure (DBP).
The difference between SBP and DBP is called pulse
pressure.
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53. Cont of blood pressure and its regulation
The average arterial blood pressure is called mean arterial blood pressure
(MAP).
MAP = DBP +1/3(Pulse pressure).
Any factor that raises DBP has a great influence on MAP.
Peripheral resistance (PR) is the opposition to the flow of blood
PR is inversely proportional to vascular radius
MAP =cardiac output x PR.
In atherosclerosis, PR increases resulting in increase in MAP.
Chronic salt loading as in habitual consumption of high salt diet increases
blood volume and cardiac output leading to a rise in MAP
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54. FACTORS AFFE CTING BL OOD
PRE SSURE
In adult, the normal blood pressure is 90-120/60-80.
Sustained increase and decrease in BP are called hypertension and
hypotension.
Variation in BP could be due to;
-Circadian variation; BP is higher in afternoon than morning.
-Age; old people have higher blood pressure than the children
-Sex; Pubertal males due to androgens have higher BP than female
- Moderate rise in temperature increases BP
- Emotion such as anxiety increase BP
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55. (cont. of factors affecting blood pressure)
- BP increases after meal.
- Menstruation increases BP.
- Posture, eg sudden standing decreases BP (postural or orthostatic
hypotension). Suppination and pronation may not affect blood pressure.
- In pregnancy, BP decreases due to diversion of blood to the reproductive
structures.
- High salt intake raises BP.
- Lifestyle such as alcoholism ,smoking and sedation raises BP.
- Muscular activities increases systolic pressure and reduces diastolic pressure
such that the mean arterial pressure does not change .
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56. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure is controlled on a short term basis
by baroreceptors and kidney renin angiotensin
aldosterone system on long term basis.
Baroreceptors are uncapsulated nerve endings
located in carotid sinus, aortic arch, right atrium,
left ventricles and the lungs.
Their stimulations reflexly decrease blood pressure.
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57. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
Figure 13; LOCATION OF ARTERIAL BARORECEPTORS (Adapted
from Review of Medical Physiology)
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58. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
Baroreceptors are controlled in the medulla
(brainstem)
Figure 14; BP control (Adapted from Review of
Medical Physiology)
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59. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM
The most powerful blood pressure regulatory mechanism.
A compensatory mechanism to acute hemorrhage .
Low blood pressure->Renin->angiotensin I ->angiotensin
II->Aldosterone->Na and water retention->ECF
expansion->high blood pressure->Atrial Natriuretic
Peptide-> Na and water excretion -> normal BP
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