This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, blood flow, and the conduction system that coordinates heart contractions. Key points covered include histology and functions of the three layers of blood vessels, properties of arteries and veins, factors influencing blood pressure, coronary blood supply to the heart, cardiac cycle, electrocardiography, and how the heart rate is regulated.
This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, blood supply and innervation of the heart. It also discusses the conduction system of the heart and electrocardiography. Key topics covered include blood vessel layers, blood pressure regulation, cardiac cycle, pacemaker potentials, electrocardiogram waves and intervals. Diagrams are provided to illustrate cardiovascular structures and the electrical conduction system.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the heart. It describes the heart's location in the chest, its chambers, valves and blood vessels. The four chambers of the heart (right and left atria and ventricles) are separated by valves that ensure one-way blood flow. Blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium, then is pumped into the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through pulmonary veins. It then passes to the left ventricle and out the body through the aorta. The heart's rhythm is regulated by its electrical conduction system.
The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ composed of three layers. It pumps blood through two circuits - the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. The heart has four valves that allow blood to flow in one direction through the two atria and two ventricles. The myocardium is the thick middle layer of cardiac muscle responsible for contraction. Blood flows from the venae cavae into the right atrium, then through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle before being pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium and passes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle to be pumped throughout the body via the aorta.
The document summarizes the cardiovascular system's blood vessels. It describes how blood is carried through arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries directly contact tissue cells and serve their needs. The three major types of blood vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries - each have a specific structure and function in circulating blood throughout the body.
This document provides information about Pickwickian Syndrome, also known as Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome. It defines the condition as a combination of obesity, low blood oxygen levels during sleep, and high blood carbon dioxide levels during the day due to abnormally slow or shallow breathing. The document outlines the objectives of teaching about the syndrome, provides details on its history, epidemiology, anatomy and physiology of the lungs, classification, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, nursing management, and prognosis. It also includes sections on the definition, history discovered in 1956, and epidemiology being more common in obese males and certain ethnicities.
The document discusses cardiac anatomy and circulation. It describes how the heart receives its own blood supply from the aorta and how circulation occurs during ventricular relaxation. It details the right and left coronary artery systems that supply nutrients and oxygen to the heart muscle. It explains how different blockages in these arteries can impact different areas of the heart muscle and electrical conduction.
The myocardium is the muscular wall of the heart. It is made up of cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes that contract rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. The cardiomyocytes are connected through intercalated disks and contain sarcomeres, which are the contractile units composed of actin and myosin filaments. The thickness of the myocardium determines the strength of the heart's contractions. When the myocardium contracts, it is stimulated by an electrical conduction system that generates and propagates action potentials through specialized pacemaker and conduction cells.
Pericardium is a tough double layered membrane which covers the heart. The space between these two layers is filled with pericardial fluid which protects the heart from any kind of external jerk or shock. There are two layers to the pericardial sac: the outermost fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium. The serous pericardium, in turn, is divided into two layers, the parietal pericardium, which is fused to and inseparable from the fibrous pericardium, and the visceral pericardium, which is part of the epicardium. The epicardium is the layer immediately outside of the heart muscle proper (the myocardium.The visceral layer extends to the beginning of the great vessels, becoming one with the parietal layer of the serous pericardium. This happens at two areas: where the aorta and pulmonary trunk leave the heart and where the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins enter the heart.In between the parietal and visceral pericardial layers there is a potential space called the pericardial cavity. It is normally lubricated by a film of pericardial fluid. Too much fluid in the cavity (such as in a pericardial effusion) can result in pericardial tamponade (compression of the heart within the pericardial sac). A pericardiectomy is sometimes needed in these cases
This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, blood supply and innervation of the heart. It also discusses the conduction system of the heart and electrocardiography. Key topics covered include blood vessel layers, blood pressure regulation, cardiac cycle, pacemaker potentials, electrocardiogram waves and intervals. Diagrams are provided to illustrate cardiovascular structures and the electrical conduction system.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the heart. It describes the heart's location in the chest, its chambers, valves and blood vessels. The four chambers of the heart (right and left atria and ventricles) are separated by valves that ensure one-way blood flow. Blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium, then is pumped into the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through pulmonary veins. It then passes to the left ventricle and out the body through the aorta. The heart's rhythm is regulated by its electrical conduction system.
The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ composed of three layers. It pumps blood through two circuits - the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. The heart has four valves that allow blood to flow in one direction through the two atria and two ventricles. The myocardium is the thick middle layer of cardiac muscle responsible for contraction. Blood flows from the venae cavae into the right atrium, then through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle before being pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium and passes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle to be pumped throughout the body via the aorta.
The document summarizes the cardiovascular system's blood vessels. It describes how blood is carried through arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries directly contact tissue cells and serve their needs. The three major types of blood vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries - each have a specific structure and function in circulating blood throughout the body.
This document provides information about Pickwickian Syndrome, also known as Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome. It defines the condition as a combination of obesity, low blood oxygen levels during sleep, and high blood carbon dioxide levels during the day due to abnormally slow or shallow breathing. The document outlines the objectives of teaching about the syndrome, provides details on its history, epidemiology, anatomy and physiology of the lungs, classification, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, nursing management, and prognosis. It also includes sections on the definition, history discovered in 1956, and epidemiology being more common in obese males and certain ethnicities.
The document discusses cardiac anatomy and circulation. It describes how the heart receives its own blood supply from the aorta and how circulation occurs during ventricular relaxation. It details the right and left coronary artery systems that supply nutrients and oxygen to the heart muscle. It explains how different blockages in these arteries can impact different areas of the heart muscle and electrical conduction.
The myocardium is the muscular wall of the heart. It is made up of cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes that contract rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. The cardiomyocytes are connected through intercalated disks and contain sarcomeres, which are the contractile units composed of actin and myosin filaments. The thickness of the myocardium determines the strength of the heart's contractions. When the myocardium contracts, it is stimulated by an electrical conduction system that generates and propagates action potentials through specialized pacemaker and conduction cells.
Pericardium is a tough double layered membrane which covers the heart. The space between these two layers is filled with pericardial fluid which protects the heart from any kind of external jerk or shock. There are two layers to the pericardial sac: the outermost fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium. The serous pericardium, in turn, is divided into two layers, the parietal pericardium, which is fused to and inseparable from the fibrous pericardium, and the visceral pericardium, which is part of the epicardium. The epicardium is the layer immediately outside of the heart muscle proper (the myocardium.The visceral layer extends to the beginning of the great vessels, becoming one with the parietal layer of the serous pericardium. This happens at two areas: where the aorta and pulmonary trunk leave the heart and where the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins enter the heart.In between the parietal and visceral pericardial layers there is a potential space called the pericardial cavity. It is normally lubricated by a film of pericardial fluid. Too much fluid in the cavity (such as in a pericardial effusion) can result in pericardial tamponade (compression of the heart within the pericardial sac). A pericardiectomy is sometimes needed in these cases
This document discusses several types of congenital heart defects including abnormalities of cardiac looping, atrial and ventricular septal defects, defects of the heart valves and major blood vessels, and venous system defects. Some of the most common defects mentioned are ventricular septal defects, tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of the great vessels, coarctation of the aorta, patent ductus arteriosus, and atrial septal defects. The causes of these defects involve abnormalities in the development of the embryonic heart structures.
The pericardium and the pericardial sinusesMohana Sekar
The pericardium is a double-walled sac that surrounds the heart and prevents overexpansion. It has an outer fibrous layer and inner serous layer. The pericardium supports the heart, limits its movement, and acts as a shock absorber. Pericardial effusion or inflammation can occur from infection, cancer, or other causes. Effusion is treated by draining fluid while inflammation is treated with anti-inflammatory drugs or identifying the underlying cause. Complications like tamponade require draining fluid from the pericardial sac.
Cardiac surgery involves operations on the heart or major blood vessels and is used to treat complications from ischemic heart disease, congenital heart defects, and valvular heart disease. Modern techniques include beating-heart surgery where the heart continues to beat during operations and heart transplantation, which was first successfully performed in 1967. Coronary artery bypass grafting is also a common procedure that creates alternative blood flow paths around blockages to prevent clots. While cardiac surgery has risks, techniques have advanced to greatly reduce mortality rates for procedures like congenital heart defect repairs.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. This blood is normally oxygenated, exceptions made for the pulmonary and umbilical arteries
William Harvey was the first modern physiologist in the 16th century. He proved that blood circulates in a continuous loop from the heart to the arteries and back to the veins and heart, overturning the long-held Galenic view of two separate circulatory systems. The circulatory system consists of arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, where gas and nutrient exchange occurs; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Arteries have thicker muscular walls than veins and carry oxygenated blood except in the pulmonary circulation.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the human heart, describing the internal and external structures such as the chambers, valves, vessels, conduction system, and blood supply. Key details include the layers of the heart wall, the differences between the right and left sides of the heart, the function of the atria and ventricles, and the roles of the major arteries and veins in the cardiac circulation. The presentation aims to educate medical students on the gross and microscopic anatomy of the heart.
The document discusses the cardiovascular system and factors that influence heart disease. It begins by describing the vital functions of the heart and blood vessels in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body. It then explains the four main components of blood - plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets - and their respective roles. Finally, it provides an overview of blood flow, blood pressure, blood vessel anatomy and the layers comprising arteries.
This document provides an anatomy overview of the heart. It begins with an introduction discussing the heart's location, size, and shape. It then covers the heart's embryology, external anatomy including the four chambers and major vessels, and internal anatomy such as the coronary arteries and circulation. The document discusses the heart's conduction system, development, and common sites of coronary blockage. It concludes with some pathological findings that may be seen in cases of sudden cardiac death and outlines several cardiac dissection methods.
The heart is a hollow muscular organ responsible for pumping blood through the body. It is enclosed in a sac called the pericardium and located in the mediastinum cavity in the center of the chest. The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. The heart's rhythm is controlled by electrical signals that cause the muscles to contract, originating from a pacemaker in the right atrium and traveling through conduction pathways.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins carry blood back to the heart. The main types of blood vessels are arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.
- Capillaries allow for exchange of oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and waste between the blood and tissues. They connect arterioles to venules.
- The circulatory system can be divided into the systemic circulation, which transports blood between the heart and body tissues, and the pulmonary circulation, which transports blood between the heart and lungs.
The heart wall consists of three main layers - the endocardium, myocardium and epicardium. The endocardium lines the inner chambers, the myocardium is the thick middle layer of muscle responsible for contractions. The epicardium is the outer layer. Damage to layers can cause conditions like endocarditis (endocardium inflammation), myocarditis (myocardium inflammation) and angina or heart attack due to reduced blood flow from blocked arteries.
The circulatory system is over 60,000 miles long, enough to go around the world more than twice. The heart pumps around 2,000 gallons of blood per day through this vast network of arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood takes about 20 seconds to circulate throughout the entire vascular system. The circulatory system transports blood from the heart to the lungs and throughout the body, providing oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and waste.
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body using arteries, veins and capillaries that total over 60,000 miles in length. The heart pumps around 5 quarts of blood per minute, totaling around 2,000 gallons per day distributed around the body. Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma and makes over 100,000 circulations per day on average over a lifetime.
The document discusses the valves of the heart. There are two types of valves - atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves.
The atrioventricular valves include the tricuspid valve between the right atrium and ventricle, and the mitral/bicuspid valve between the left atrium and ventricle.
The semilunar valves include the pulmonary valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, and the aortic valve between the left ventricle and aorta. Each valve has specific roles in regulating blood flow and preventing backflow through the heart chambers and vessels.
The document summarizes the anatomy of the heart in three layers:
1) The outermost layer is the pericardium, a protective sac around the heart.
2) The middle layer is the myocardium, which is the thick muscular wall of the heart.
3) The innermost layer is the endocardium, which lines the chambers of the heart.
The document discusses capillary exchange and hemodynamics. It explains that capillaries allow exchange of substances between blood and tissues via diffusion, transcytosis, and bulk flow. Most exchange occurs via diffusion down concentration gradients. Bulk flow involves filtration of fluid from arteries into tissues and reabsorption into veins. Edema can occur if filtration exceeds reabsorption. Hemodynamics influence blood flow - it is highest where pressure differences are largest and resistance is lowest, such as from arteries to veins.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular anatomy and physiology. It describes the structure and blood flow through the heart chambers. It discusses concepts such as preload, contractility, afterload, and how they impact cardiac output and blood pressure. It also summarizes common symptoms of cardiac disease like chest pain, shortness of breath, palpitations, and syncope. The document concludes by outlining aspects of cardiovascular examination such as inspection, palpation of pulses, auscultation of heart sounds, and evaluation of jugular venous pressure.
The document discusses the anatomy and function of the heart. It describes the four chambers of the heart, including the left and right ventricles that pump blood to the lungs and body. It also discusses the causes and features of heart failure, which can occur when the heart is unable to pump sufficiently due to conditions that weaken it over time. Common causes include hypertension, heart attacks, and cardiac diseases. Features involve congestion in the lungs and other organs from blood backing up.
This document provides an overview of the human respiratory system. It discusses the key components of the respiratory system including the lungs, respiratory tract, respiratory muscles, and respiratory centers in the brain. It describes the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration, including how contraction of inspiratory muscles decreases intrathoracic pressure and draws air into the lungs. Compliance and surfactant are also discussed as they relate to lung elasticity and prevention of lung collapse during expiration.
The document lists common pets such as goldfish, dogs, cats, budgies, guinea pigs, rabbits, and tortoises. It also lists some common farm animals including horses, cows, goats, sheep, geese, ducks and ducklings, and hens. The document categorizes different animals as either pets or farm animals.
This document discusses several types of congenital heart defects including abnormalities of cardiac looping, atrial and ventricular septal defects, defects of the heart valves and major blood vessels, and venous system defects. Some of the most common defects mentioned are ventricular septal defects, tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of the great vessels, coarctation of the aorta, patent ductus arteriosus, and atrial septal defects. The causes of these defects involve abnormalities in the development of the embryonic heart structures.
The pericardium and the pericardial sinusesMohana Sekar
The pericardium is a double-walled sac that surrounds the heart and prevents overexpansion. It has an outer fibrous layer and inner serous layer. The pericardium supports the heart, limits its movement, and acts as a shock absorber. Pericardial effusion or inflammation can occur from infection, cancer, or other causes. Effusion is treated by draining fluid while inflammation is treated with anti-inflammatory drugs or identifying the underlying cause. Complications like tamponade require draining fluid from the pericardial sac.
Cardiac surgery involves operations on the heart or major blood vessels and is used to treat complications from ischemic heart disease, congenital heart defects, and valvular heart disease. Modern techniques include beating-heart surgery where the heart continues to beat during operations and heart transplantation, which was first successfully performed in 1967. Coronary artery bypass grafting is also a common procedure that creates alternative blood flow paths around blockages to prevent clots. While cardiac surgery has risks, techniques have advanced to greatly reduce mortality rates for procedures like congenital heart defect repairs.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. This blood is normally oxygenated, exceptions made for the pulmonary and umbilical arteries
William Harvey was the first modern physiologist in the 16th century. He proved that blood circulates in a continuous loop from the heart to the arteries and back to the veins and heart, overturning the long-held Galenic view of two separate circulatory systems. The circulatory system consists of arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, where gas and nutrient exchange occurs; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Arteries have thicker muscular walls than veins and carry oxygenated blood except in the pulmonary circulation.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the human heart, describing the internal and external structures such as the chambers, valves, vessels, conduction system, and blood supply. Key details include the layers of the heart wall, the differences between the right and left sides of the heart, the function of the atria and ventricles, and the roles of the major arteries and veins in the cardiac circulation. The presentation aims to educate medical students on the gross and microscopic anatomy of the heart.
The document discusses the cardiovascular system and factors that influence heart disease. It begins by describing the vital functions of the heart and blood vessels in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body. It then explains the four main components of blood - plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets - and their respective roles. Finally, it provides an overview of blood flow, blood pressure, blood vessel anatomy and the layers comprising arteries.
This document provides an anatomy overview of the heart. It begins with an introduction discussing the heart's location, size, and shape. It then covers the heart's embryology, external anatomy including the four chambers and major vessels, and internal anatomy such as the coronary arteries and circulation. The document discusses the heart's conduction system, development, and common sites of coronary blockage. It concludes with some pathological findings that may be seen in cases of sudden cardiac death and outlines several cardiac dissection methods.
The heart is a hollow muscular organ responsible for pumping blood through the body. It is enclosed in a sac called the pericardium and located in the mediastinum cavity in the center of the chest. The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. The heart's rhythm is controlled by electrical signals that cause the muscles to contract, originating from a pacemaker in the right atrium and traveling through conduction pathways.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins carry blood back to the heart. The main types of blood vessels are arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.
- Capillaries allow for exchange of oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and waste between the blood and tissues. They connect arterioles to venules.
- The circulatory system can be divided into the systemic circulation, which transports blood between the heart and body tissues, and the pulmonary circulation, which transports blood between the heart and lungs.
The heart wall consists of three main layers - the endocardium, myocardium and epicardium. The endocardium lines the inner chambers, the myocardium is the thick middle layer of muscle responsible for contractions. The epicardium is the outer layer. Damage to layers can cause conditions like endocarditis (endocardium inflammation), myocarditis (myocardium inflammation) and angina or heart attack due to reduced blood flow from blocked arteries.
The circulatory system is over 60,000 miles long, enough to go around the world more than twice. The heart pumps around 2,000 gallons of blood per day through this vast network of arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood takes about 20 seconds to circulate throughout the entire vascular system. The circulatory system transports blood from the heart to the lungs and throughout the body, providing oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and waste.
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body using arteries, veins and capillaries that total over 60,000 miles in length. The heart pumps around 5 quarts of blood per minute, totaling around 2,000 gallons per day distributed around the body. Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma and makes over 100,000 circulations per day on average over a lifetime.
The document discusses the valves of the heart. There are two types of valves - atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves.
The atrioventricular valves include the tricuspid valve between the right atrium and ventricle, and the mitral/bicuspid valve between the left atrium and ventricle.
The semilunar valves include the pulmonary valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, and the aortic valve between the left ventricle and aorta. Each valve has specific roles in regulating blood flow and preventing backflow through the heart chambers and vessels.
The document summarizes the anatomy of the heart in three layers:
1) The outermost layer is the pericardium, a protective sac around the heart.
2) The middle layer is the myocardium, which is the thick muscular wall of the heart.
3) The innermost layer is the endocardium, which lines the chambers of the heart.
The document discusses capillary exchange and hemodynamics. It explains that capillaries allow exchange of substances between blood and tissues via diffusion, transcytosis, and bulk flow. Most exchange occurs via diffusion down concentration gradients. Bulk flow involves filtration of fluid from arteries into tissues and reabsorption into veins. Edema can occur if filtration exceeds reabsorption. Hemodynamics influence blood flow - it is highest where pressure differences are largest and resistance is lowest, such as from arteries to veins.
This document provides an overview of cardiovascular anatomy and physiology. It describes the structure and blood flow through the heart chambers. It discusses concepts such as preload, contractility, afterload, and how they impact cardiac output and blood pressure. It also summarizes common symptoms of cardiac disease like chest pain, shortness of breath, palpitations, and syncope. The document concludes by outlining aspects of cardiovascular examination such as inspection, palpation of pulses, auscultation of heart sounds, and evaluation of jugular venous pressure.
The document discusses the anatomy and function of the heart. It describes the four chambers of the heart, including the left and right ventricles that pump blood to the lungs and body. It also discusses the causes and features of heart failure, which can occur when the heart is unable to pump sufficiently due to conditions that weaken it over time. Common causes include hypertension, heart attacks, and cardiac diseases. Features involve congestion in the lungs and other organs from blood backing up.
This document provides an overview of the human respiratory system. It discusses the key components of the respiratory system including the lungs, respiratory tract, respiratory muscles, and respiratory centers in the brain. It describes the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration, including how contraction of inspiratory muscles decreases intrathoracic pressure and draws air into the lungs. Compliance and surfactant are also discussed as they relate to lung elasticity and prevention of lung collapse during expiration.
The document lists common pets such as goldfish, dogs, cats, budgies, guinea pigs, rabbits, and tortoises. It also lists some common farm animals including horses, cows, goats, sheep, geese, ducks and ducklings, and hens. The document categorizes different animals as either pets or farm animals.
Female polar bears give birth to litters of 1 to 4 cubs in dens dug in late fall. Newborn cubs are blind, tiny, and grow rapidly over their first year, nursing from their mother. At around 2 years old, mothers chase their cubs away to survive on their own, as fully grown polar bears can reach over 450kg for males and 200kg for females.
The document discusses several endangered animal species from around the world, including 11 mammals, 14 birds, and 38 reptiles that were recently added to the critically endangered list. It also describes China's efforts to establish nature reserves to protect habitats and support recovery of endangered species populations. Several endangered species found in China and elsewhere in Asia are then described in more detail.
Laws regarding exotic pet ownership vary by state, with some banning them, others requiring licenses, and some having no restrictions. This lack of regulation means dangerous exotic animals can be kept as pets and pose risks if they escape. Burmese pythons are an example, as some owners release them into the wild when they grow too large. While celebrities influence consumers to buy exotic pets, the animals often have full-time caregivers and don't face the same risks as pets owned by private individuals. Ultimately, exotic animals belong in the wild for their well-being and the safety of humans.
This document summarizes research on Ranaviral disease pathology and physiology across different classes of animals. Key points include:
1) Lesions from Ranavirus infections often include hemorrhage, swelling and tissue necrosis across amphibians, reptiles and fish.
2) Host susceptibility and disease severity varies between virus isolates and host species.
3) Concurrent infections with other pathogens can influence Ranavirus disease progression.
4) Current research is characterizing Ranavirus pathogenesis in different hosts and exploring the effects of concurrent infections.
This document provides information about frog anatomy and physiology, including muscles, internal organs, and reproductive systems. It lists and diagrams various frog muscles on the ventral side and legs. Diagrams of internal organs show the location of structures like the heart, lungs, liver, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive organs in male and female frogs. Key terms are provided to label different muscles and internal structures.
This document provides instructions and background information for dissecting a frog. It outlines the materials needed and guides the reader through examining the frog's external anatomy, internal mouth, and conducting the dissection. The dissection procedure involves making cuts to expose the internal organs, removing organs like the liver and digestive tract, and opening the cranium to view the brain. A worksheet is included to have students record their observations at different steps.
The document discusses the cardiovascular system and the anatomy and organization of the heart. It describes the heart as a muscular organ that pumps blood through two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which carries blood to and from the lungs, and the systemic circuit, which transports blood to and from the rest of the body. The heart contains four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood out. The heart wall contains three layers: the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. The myocardium contains cardiac muscle tissue that forms concentric layers and allows the heart to squeeze and twist to efficiently pump blood.
This document provides information about frog anatomy and dissection from a biology lab. It describes some key facts about frogs such as their classification as amphibians and life cycle. It also outlines some benefits frogs provide to humans, including compounds used in antibiotics and potential treatments derived from their ability to regrow limbs. The document concludes by listing safety procedures and materials needed for the frog dissection lab.
This document provides an index and overview of the muscles, internal organs, and other structures that would be labeled and identified during a frog dissection. It includes sections on the frog's mouth, dorsal and ventral muscle groups, internal organs for both male and female frogs, and keys identifying each labeled structure. The purpose is to guide students through the process of dissecting and labeling a frog specimen.
This presentation deals with the in-depth analysis of various cardiac stimulants & depressants both directly & indirectly acting on frog's heart. Also, includes a nice quiz, a good exercise for the grey cells of the brain at the end of the presentation.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of frogs. It describes some of the key external and internal features of frogs, including that males can be identified by vocal sacs and a copulatory pad. It also outlines several frog body systems, noting frogs have a three-chambered heart and respiratory systems that can include lungs and cutaneous respiration through the skin. Their excretory system produces urea to conserve water.
The document discusses animal testing and argues that it is cruel and should not be allowed. It notes that millions of animals suffer and die in testing each year and describes some of the types of tests conducted on animals, including poisoning and physical injury. Alternatives to animal testing are presented, and several organizations opposed to animal testing are mentioned.
1. basics of experimental pharmacologyMBBS IMS MSU
Experimental pharmacology involves studying the effects of pharmacological agents on different animal species. The aims are to identify suitable therapeutic agents for human use, study drug toxicity and mechanisms of action. Common laboratory animals used include mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits. Rats are commonly used due to their small size and low drug requirements. Wistar rats are a commonly used strain. Mice are also used for toxicology and drug screening studies due to their small size. Guinea pigs are sensitive to histamine and antibiotics, making them useful for studies in these areas. Rabbits are docile and used for pyrogen testing and studies of drugs affecting capillary permeability. Frogs are commonly used for isolated tissue studies and studies of drugs acting on
This document discusses the history and types of animal experimentation. It notes that Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to use living animals in experiments. It outlines the types of animal research including basic research, applied research, toxicology testing, and xenotransplantation. Common animal models used are rats, mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs. The document also discusses the principles of replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments and the ethical requirements for conducting such research.
There are three main types of animal testing: product testing to ensure safety after consumption, research performed for medical and scientific advancements like new drug experiments, and education and training from high school dissections to medical student training. Animal testing in Australia is legal but regulated by state and territory laws requiring approval from an authority. The National Health and Medical Research Council's Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes provides the basis for practices and ensures testing is valid, humane, justifiable, and considerate. However, arguments against animal testing say it is cruel to animals as many tests result in pain, suffering, and death, and alternatives now exist.
The document is a quiz that tests the user's ability to identify different animals. It asks the user to identify single animals as well as groups of animals by choosing from multiple choice answers. After each attempt, the user receives feedback indicating whether their choice was correct or incorrect, and is encouraged to try again if needed. At the end, the user is congratulated for completing the quiz successfully.
This document provides a summary of basic cardiovascular physiology. It describes the main components of the cardiovascular system including blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), heart anatomy, cardiac cycle, conduction system, blood supply and innervation of the heart. Key concepts covered are structure and function of different blood vessels, blood flow and pressure, electrocardiography, and regulation of heart rate and contractility.
The document describes the anatomy and structure of the human heart. It details the four chambers of the heart - the right and left atria which receive blood, and the right and left ventricles which pump blood out. It describes the heart valves between the chambers that prevent backflow of blood. It also discusses the layers of the heart wall, the blood supply to the heart muscles via coronary arteries, and the specialized cardiac muscle cells that make up the heart.
This document provides an overview of the embryological development and anatomy of arteries and veins in the head and neck region. It discusses the formation of blood and aortic arches in early embryonic development. It then describes the course, branches, and clinical relevance of major arteries like the common carotid artery, external carotid artery, internal carotid artery, and branches including the lingual, facial, and superior thyroid arteries. It also briefly outlines the structure and differences between arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The circulatory system transports fluids throughout the body;
it consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
The heart and blood vessels make up the blood transportation network, the cardiovascular system.
Through this system, the heart pumps blood through the body’s vast system of blood vessels.
The blood carries nutrients, oxygen, and waste products to and from the cells.
VASCULAR CIRCUITS
The heart consists of two muscular pumps dividing the circulation into two components:
pulmonary circulations
systemic circulations or circuit
Pulmonary Circulation
Rt ventricle propels low O2 blood into the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
CO2 is exchanged for O2 in the capillaries of the lungs.
Then the O2 -rich blood is returned via the pulmonary veins to the Lft atrium.
This circuit, from the right ventricle through the lungs to the left atrium, is the pulmonary circulation.
Systemic Circulation
Left ventricle propels the O2 -rich blood through systemic arteries (the aorta and its branches),
exchanging O2 and nutrients for CO2 in the remainder of the body’s capillaries.
Low- O2 blood returns to right atrium via systemic veins (tributaries of the superior and inferior vena cava).
This circuit, from left ventricle to right atrium, is the systemic circulation.
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The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through two circuits - the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The heart is myogenic, with cardiac muscle initiating its own rhythmic contractions. It has a conduction system that coordinates electrical signals to ensure organized pumping. Blood flows through the heart in two loops, with oxygenated blood from the lungs entering the left side and deoxygenated blood returning from the body to the right side.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through the blood vessels. It is surrounded by layers including the outer fibrous pericardium, middle myocardial muscle layer, and inner endocardial lining. Blood flows from the heart through arteries and arterioles, into capillaries where gas exchange occurs, and returns to the heart through veins and venules. Valves in the heart and vessels ensure one-way blood flow. The cardiovascular system circulates blood to supply the body with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste.
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The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps oxygenated blood received from the lungs into the main artery (aorta) and deoxygenated blood received from the body into the pulmonary artery to be sent to the lungs. Blood flows through two circulations - systemic circulation where blood is pumped from the heart to the body and pulmonary circulation where blood travels from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated. The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste through arteries, veins and capillaries to keep the body functioning properly.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and network of blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body. The heart pumps blood in a continuous cycle called the cardiac cycle. Blood is carried away from the heart through arteries and returns to the heart through veins, passing through capillaries where nutrients and gases are exchanged. The cardiovascular system can be affected by congenital heart defects present from birth or conditions like heart failure that impair the heart's ability to pump effectively.
The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, moves substances to and from cells and helps regulate body temperature and pH. It consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The heart begins beating around 21 days after conception at a rate near the mother's, which then accelerates over the first month. Blood vessels include arteries, which carry blood away from the heart, veins, which carry blood toward the heart, and capillaries, which connect arterioles and venules and closely interact with tissues. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae and is pumped through the pulmonary and systemic circuits to be oxygenated in the lungs before being distributed to the body
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Mj adeniyi msc cardio
1. LECTURE NOTE
ON
BASIC CARDIOVASULAR PHYSIOLOGY
BY
MJ ADENIYI, MSC
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, BENIN-CITY
NIGERIA
7jimade@gmail.com (+234 08066796517)
3/21/2017
2. INTRODUCTION
The cardiovascular system consists majorly of tubular structures called blood
vessels and a muscular organ called the heart.
BLOOD VESSELS
Histologically, blood vessels are made up of three layers; the tunica
adventitia (outer layer), the tunica media (middle layer) and the tunica intima
(the innermost layer).
The tunica adventitia is composed of protein fibers such as elastin and
collagen. These afford flexibility, shape and strength to the vessels.
The tunica media is made up of multi-unit smooth muscle. Vagal and
sympathetic stimulations of this layer bring about relaxation and constriction.
3/21/2017
3. Continuation
The tunica intima is in contact with vascular fluid and contains a single layer of
endothelial cells. Endothelial cells play important role in the control of vascular
permeability and escape of macromolecules into microcirculation as occurs in
extravasation, fluid shift and inflammation. They secrete chemical messengers such
as nitric oxide (vasodilators) and endothelins (vasoconstrictors) and endothelial
derived growth factors.
ARTERIES
Arteries are vessels that conduct oxygen –rich blood (oxygenated blood) except
pulmonary and umbilical arteries from the heart to the body tissues.
Between the tunica adventitia and tunica media is elastic band rich in elastin.
3/21/2017
4. Continuation
Arteries have no valves except pulmonary artery and aorta.
Arteries have thick walls and smaller luminal diameter than veins.
They are the most flexible vessels. Increase in the diameter of arterial blood
vessel is called vasodilation and decrease in diameter is called vasoconstriction.
As the diameter of arteries increases, their tendency to oppose blood flow
(Peripheral vascular resistance) decreases and vice versa.
Old age and medical condition such as atherosclerosis bring about decrease
in the elasticity of arteries.
The lateral pressure exerted by contained column of blood on the arterial
vessel is termed Arterial Blood Pressure.
Arteries divide into smaller units called arterioles.
3/21/2017
5. Figure 1:Blood vessels (Adapted from Review of Medical Physiology)
Continuation
3/21/2017
6. Continuation
Arterioles are the site of resistance because they are narrower than arteries
and they have more tunica media. Contraction of arterioles raises peripheral
vascular resistance and reduces blood flow to the capillaries. They are
therefore called resistance blood vessel.
VEINS
Blood conduits to the heart.
They have higher luminal diameter than arteries. Therefore they can hold
more blood. They are called capacitance blood vessel. Phlebotomy is
possible because of this reason and because of their superficial location.
3/21/2017
7. Continuation
Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood except pulmonary and umbilical veins.
Veins have valves. Contraction of muscles causes the proximal valve to open
resulting in movement of blood into the heart. The rate at which venous blood
reaches the right and left atria is called venous return. Occlusion of veins
probably due to positive intrathoracic pressure as occurs during expiration
reduces venous return and vice versa.
Inflammation of veins is called phlebitis. Like arteries, air bubbles and clots
can block the vascular lumen resulting in ischemia (reduction in tissue
perfusion).
Veins are made up of smaller units called venules.
3/21/2017
8. CAPILLARIES
The smallest blood vessels but with the greatest total cross sectional area.
Depleted of tunica adventitia and tunica media.
Forms an interface with the body cells.
The diameter is 5µm at the arterial end and 9µm at the venous end (see Fig.
1).
Formation and reabsorption of interstitial fluid depend on interplay of
starling forces; the capillary hydrostatic pressure(CHP) and capillary oncotic
pressure (COP). For interstitial fluid to be formed, CHP at arterial end >COP
and for reabsorption, CHP at venous end<COP.
3/21/2017
9. Continuation
CHP at arterial end is 30mmHg, CHP at venous end is 15mmHg and
COP is 25mmHg at both ends. Therefore, a pressure of 5mmHg favours
formation while a pressure of 10mmHg favours reabsorption. Decreased in
oncotic pressure due to liver diseases brings about increased risk of edema.
COP at venous end increases in congestive heart failure and pulmonary heart
disease resulting in increased chance of edema.
Carbon dioxide rich blood is returned from parts above and below the
heart by superior and inferior venacava.
Oxygen rich blood leaves the heart through aorta. A force is required to
drive blood to different regions of the body. This force is termed Arterial
Blood Pressure.
3/21/2017
11. HEART
The heart is a muscular wedge shaped organ.
Weighs about 300g and larger in adult male than adult female.
Located in the middle midiastinum between T5 and T8 vertebral
segments.
It has 5 surfaces; anterior surface formed by right ventricle, posterior
surface formed by left atrium, right pulmonary surface formed by right
atrium, left pulmonary surface formed by left ventricle and diaphragmatic
surface formed by right and left ventricles.
3/21/2017
12. continuation
It has 4 borders; superior border by right and left atria, inferior border by right
and left ventricles, right border by right atrium and right ventricle and left border
by left atrium and left ventricle.
The heart is made up of three layers; the outer layer called the pericardium, the
middle layer called the myocardium and the inner layer called the endocardium.
The pericardium consists of the fibrous parietal and the inner visceral layer. In
between these layers is a space filled with a serous fluid. The fluid reduces friction
when the layers rub against each other as occurs during the cardiac cycle. The
fluid is reabsorbed into the circulation. Accumulation of this fluid in this space
occurs in pericarditis. Cardiac tamponade occurs when the accumulated fluid
within the pericardium results in deranged tendency of the heart to stretch during
diastole.
3/21/2017
13. Continuation
The myocardium consists of cardiac muscle and a specialized tissues that
constitute the conduction system of the heart.
The endocardium lines the cavity of the heart.
The heart exhibits a mechanism through which it drives blood into the
systemic circulation. This mechanism is known as the heartbeat. An average
heart beat is 72/min. In a day, the heart beats 10,000times.
The type of circulation in human beings is closed circulation.
Circulations of blood between the heart and lungs and between the heart
and aorta are known as pulmonary and systemic circulations respectively.
3/21/2017
14. The heart has blood flow controlling structures called valves.
Examples are;
-Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid valve between right atrium and right
ventricle auscultated at the left fifth intercostal space and bicuspid or
mitral valve between left atrium and left ventricle auscultated at the left
fifth intercostal space along mid-clavicular line).
- Semilunar valve (aortic valve between left ventricle and aorta
auscultated at the right 2nd costal cartilage and pulmonary valve between
right ventricle and pulmonary valve auscultated at the left 2nd costal
cartilage). Semilunar valves are tricuspid.
3/21/2017
15. BLOOD SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE
The heart is supplied by coronary arteries.
The right coronary artery (RCA) arises from anterior aortic sinus and left
coronary artery (LCA) from left posterior aortic sinus.
RCA supplies the right side of the heart and LCA, the left side.
RCA branches into right marginal artery and posterior interventricular artery.
The former supplies the superficial part of the right side of the heart and the
latter branches into nodal artery that supplies conductive tissues (2/3 of the AV
node). RCA also supplies the other parts of the right side of the heart including
1/3 of the interventricular septum.
RCA unites (anastomosis) with the circumflex artery at the coronary sulcus.
3/21/2017
16. Continuation
The anastomosis of the heart is anatomical not a functional type and
therefore, narrowing of the arterial vessels supplying the heart could result in
myocardial infarction.
LCA supplies the left side of the heart.
LCA gives rise to anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery.
Anterior interventricular artery supplies the remaining 2/3 of the
interventricular septum.
Circumflex artery branches into nodal artery that supplies the remaining 1/3
of AV node.
Circumflex artery branches into left marginal artery which supplies the
superficial part of the left side of the heart.
3/21/2017
17. Continuation
Anterior interventricular artery unites with posterior interventricular
artery at the interventricular groove.
The right and left septal branches also unite at interventricular septum.
The myocardium receives arterial supply during diastole.
The proportion of the cardiac output received by the heart is 4.8%.
Venous drainage is through small, middle and great cardiac veins. These
veins drain into the right atrium through coronary sinus.
Lymphatic drainage is by tracheobronchial lymph node.
3/21/2017
18. NERVOUS SUPPLY
The heart is innervated by sympathetic (adrenergic) fibers and
parasympathetic (vagal) fibers.
Adrenergic nerve fiber to the heart is epicardial. Stimulation of β1 and β2
adrenergic receptors results in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (CAMP)-
mediated increase in force of contraction (positive inotropic action) and
increase in heart rate (positive chronotropic action).
Vagal fibers are subendocardial. Stimulation of muscarinic cholinergic
receptor (M2 receptors) causes CAMP-mediated decreases heart rate
Reciprocal innervation occurs in the heart.
3/21/2017
19. Figure 3: electrical events of the cardiac muscle (Adapted from Review
of Medical Physiology)
3/21/2017
20. Figure 4: electrical events of the pacemaker tissue (Adapted from Review of
Medical Physiology)
3/21/2017
21. PACEMAKER AND CARDIAC MUSCLE
POTENTIALS
Influx of sodium ions contributes to the first phase
of pacemaker potential and such channels are called
H channels.
Influx of calcium ions through slow opening
calcium channel is responsible for the pacemaker
action potential.
3/21/2017
22. As far as cardiac muscle is concerned, depolarization
is due to influx of sodium ions through the fast
opening sodium channels.
Initial repolarization is due to inactivation of sodium
channels.
Plateau is due to influx of slow opening calcium
channels.
Hyperpolarization is due to net efflux of potassium
channels.
3/21/2017
23. CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF
THE HEART
Denervation of the heart does not make the heart to stop beating.
This is due to the presence of specialized tissue called sinoatrial node
(SA node), the primary pacemaker tissue located in the right atrium at
the opening of superior venacava which is capable of generating
electrical impulses spontaneously at a higher rate.
Impulses from SA node spreads to the AV node (located in posterior
interatrial septum) through purkinje typed internodal tract (which
include the anterior fibers of bachman, middle fibers of wenchebach
and posterior fibers of thorel).
3/21/2017
25. continuation
In the AV node, conduction is slow (0.05m/s). This known as AV
nodal delay allows atrial contraction to precede ventricular contraction.
It also allows ventricular filling to precede ventricular ejection.
Impulses from AV bode reach the left and right ventricle through left
bundle of His and right bundle of His.
The bundle of His and the branches transmit impulses to rapidly
conducting purkinje fibers (4m/s) which run subendocardially and end
on myocardial cells.
3/21/2017
26. Continuation
Depolarization begins at the left side of interventricular
septum and spreads towards the right side.
Impulses converge on the apex of the heart (located in the
left V intercostal space along the mid-clavicular line).
Pulmonary conus and the posterior basal portion of the
interventricular septum are the last parts to be depolarized
3/21/2017
28. The recording of the electrical activities of the
heart taken from the surface of the body is called
electrocardiogram.
Invented by Willem Einthoven.
There are three bipolar (standard) limb leads and
nine unipolar leads ( 3 augumented limb leads
and 6 precordial leads or chest leads).
3/21/2017
29. Converts electrical impulses to understandable language
(ECG waves).
The amplitude and duration of ECG waves have a wide
clinical implication.
P wave (0.1s, 0.1mV) is due to atrial depolarization.
QRS (0.08s)complex is due to ventricular depolarization.
T (0.32s) wave is due to ventricular repolarization.
ECG intervals includes PR (0.18-0.2s) interval, measures
the spread of electrical activities from atria to ventricles.
3/21/2017
30. QT interval (0.42s) measures the spread of electrical
activities through ventricle.
R-R interval is d interval btw the peak of two adjacent
ECG waves. Exercise, emotion shortens it.
Heart rate=300/no of large boxes between R-R interval
or 10 x ECG cycles in a 6 s strip.
ST interval is isoelectric. Elevation occurs in myocardial
infarction and depression is seen in myocardial ischemia.
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35. Figure 10; ECG recorded from the three augumented
limb leads
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36. APPLICATIONS
ECG changes with change in heart rate
Figure 11; sinus bradycardia (LEAD III) short R-R interval
SINUS TACHYCARDIA (LEAD I) short R-R interval
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37. HEART BLOCK (PROLONGED PR INTERVAL)
Figure 12; Applications of ECG
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MYOCARDIA ISCHEMIA (DEPRESSED ST SEGMENT)
38. MECHANICAL EVENTS OF THE HEART
Cardiac cycle is a coordinated sequence of mechanical
events during each heart beat.
It is 0.8 seconds at normal heart beat and decreased by
sympathetic stimulation.
Consists of diastole (.53s) and systole (.27).
Diastole consists of protodiastole, atrial systole,
isometric relaxation and filling phases.
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39. ECG waves Implications
Atrial depolarization (P waves) Atrial contraction ( atrial systole)
Ventricular depolarization (QRS) Ventricular contraction (systole)
Ventricular repolarization (T waves) Ventricular relaxation
Atrial repolarization merges with QRS complex on an ECG strip.
Atrial repolarization produces atrial relaxation or atrial diastole.
Systole consists of isometric contraction and ejection period.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
Cardiac output is the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute. It is
about 5L/min.
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40. Continuation.
According to Frank-Starling law, Cardiac output=Stroke volume x Heart
rate
Heart rate is the number of beats produced by the heart per minute.
It represents the number of times left ventricle contracts to eject blood per
minute.
Originates from the sinoatrial node.
It is about 72 beats/minutes in adult man at rest and this is called sinus
rhythm.
Increased and depressed by sympathetic and vagal stimulation respectively.
Actions relating to heart rate and force of contraction are called chronotropic
and inotropic actions respectively.
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41. Heart rate (HR) is controlled in the medulla by dorsal motor nucleus
and nucleus ambiguus.
Decrease and increase in heart rate originating from SA node are called
sinus bradycardia and sinus tachycardia.
Sleep may lead to sinus bradycardia.
Pregnancy, exercise and anxiety may lead to sinus tachycardia.
Pulsation is the use of sense of touch to judge the heart rate in
peripheral arteries. Or the palpation of heart rate in arteries that are
constricted by bone using a well trained fingertips.
Pulse rate is the number of times arteries oscillate per minute.
HR may be more than pulse rate. This is known as pulsus deficit.
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42. PULSATION SITES
Pulse can be felt in
Superficial temporal artery
Facial artery
Right and left common carotid arteries
Apex of the heart
Brachial artery
Radial artery
Femoral artery
Popliteal artery
Dorsal pedalis artery
Posterior tibial artery
Fontanels in neonates
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43. FACTORS AFFECTING
PULSE RATE
Age; Pulse rate is higher in neonate than old people.
Sex; Pubertal males have higher pulse rate than female.
State of activity; exercise increases pulse rate, sleep decreases pulse
rate.
Anxiety increases pulse rate.
In pregnancy, there is increase in pulse rate.
Circadian variation; it is higher in day than night.
Temperature: high temperature increases pulse rate.
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44. Continuation
End diastolic volume or preload is the amount of blood in each ventricle at
the end of diastole. It is 130ml. In restrictive cardiomyopathy, it may be
greatly reduced.
Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per beat.
It is 70ml/beat.
Stroke volume is affected by contractility, End diastolic volume, peripheral
resistance, etc.
Stroke volume/End diastolic volume =Ejection fraction. i.e 70/130x100%
Ejection fraction is 45-60%. In congestive cardiomyopathy, the fraction
may be lower than 40%.
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45. FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT (CO)
Posture; sudden standing decreases CO. In untrained people, prolonged standing
exacerbates the decrease. Suppination and pronation have no effect.
Muscular exercise increases co
Hemorrhage most especially heavy hemorrhage and chronic light hemorrhage
decreases co
Obesity and large body surface area increase co
Negative intrathoracic pressure (eg inspiration) increases co and positive
intrathoracic pressure decreases it
Anatomical anomaly like kyphosis may decrease co.
Dietary factor (as in high salt) intake increases co
Emotion such as anxiety increases co
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46. HEART SOUNDS
Noises (vibrations) produced by heartbeat,
valvular closure, flow of blood and arterial elastic
recoil.
The noises reflect turbulence flow of blood.
Heart sounds can be measured by stethoscope
and other devices.
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47. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
There are four heart sounds.
The first heart sound S1 is due majorly to the
vibration set up by the simultaneous closure of the
atrioventricular valves.
It is long, soft and low pitched resembling the word
“LUB”.
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48. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
It is 25-40HZ in frequency and 10-17s . It has mitral and
tricuspid components.
Second heart sound S2 is high pitched and short resembling
the word ‘DUB’.
Has aortic and pulmonary components.
Second heart sound S2 is due to vibrations set up by the
sudden closure of semilunar valves.
I
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49. HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
S1 and S2 can be measured using stethoscope.
S3 and S4 are extra heartbeat. They are low
pitched.
S3 is soft.
Occurrence of S3 is pathological in people above
40 years.
Occurrence of S4 is pathological.
S4 is also low pitched and soft.
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50. ABNORMAL HEART SOUNDS
Murmurs are abnormal noises generated within the
cardiovascular system.
Abnormal noises produced outside the
cardiovascular system are called bruits.
Murmurs may be due to valvular incompetence
(weak valves leading to regurgitation of blood) and
stenosis (narrowing).
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51. ABNORMAL HEART SOUNDS (cont’d)
Diastolic murmurs are due to incompetence of
semilunar valve, stenosis of atrioventricular valve,
and anemia.
Systolic murmurs are due to incompetence of the
atrioventricular valve and stenosis of semilunar
valve.
Continuous murmurs are due to patent ductus
arteriosus.
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52. BLOOD PRESSURE (BP) AND ITS REGULATION
The lateral pressure exerted by a contained column of blood
on the heart.
Measured non-invasively via sphygmomanometer using
procedure that was invented by Nicolai Korotkoff.
BP is expressed as systolic blood pressure (SBP)/diastolic
blood pressure (DBP).
The difference between SBP and DBP is called pulse
pressure.
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53. Cont of blood pressure and its regulation
The average arterial blood pressure is called mean arterial blood pressure
(MAP).
MAP = DBP +1/3(Pulse pressure).
Any factor that raises DBP has a great influence on MAP.
Peripheral resistance (PR) is the opposition to the flow of blood
PR is inversely proportional to vascular radius
MAP =cardiac output x PR.
In atherosclerosis, PR increases resulting in increase in MAP.
Chronic salt loading as in habitual consumption of high salt diet increases
blood volume and cardiac output leading to a rise in MAP
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54. FACTORS AFFE CTING BL OOD
PRE SSURE
In adult, the normal blood pressure is 90-120/60-80.
Sustained increase and decrease in BP are called hypertension and
hypotension.
Variation in BP could be due to;
-Circadian variation; BP is higher in afternoon than morning.
-Age; old people have higher blood pressure than the children
-Sex; Pubertal males due to androgens have higher BP than female
- Moderate rise in temperature increases BP
- Emotion such as anxiety increase BP
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55. (cont. of factors affecting blood pressure)
- BP increases after meal.
- Menstruation increases BP.
- Posture, eg sudden standing decreases BP (postural or orthostatic
hypotension). Suppination and pronation may not affect blood pressure.
- In pregnancy, BP decreases due to diversion of blood to the reproductive
structures.
- High salt intake raises BP.
- Lifestyle such as alcoholism ,smoking and sedation raises BP.
- Muscular activities increases systolic pressure and reduces diastolic pressure
such that the mean arterial pressure does not change .
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56. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure is controlled on a short term basis
by baroreceptors and kidney renin angiotensin
aldosterone system on long term basis.
Baroreceptors are uncapsulated nerve endings
located in carotid sinus, aortic arch, right atrium,
left ventricles and the lungs.
Their stimulations reflexly decrease blood pressure.
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57. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
Figure 13; LOCATION OF ARTERIAL BARORECEPTORS (Adapted
from Review of Medical Physiology)
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58. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
Baroreceptors are controlled in the medulla
(brainstem)
Figure 14; BP control (Adapted from Review of
Medical Physiology)
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59. BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM
The most powerful blood pressure regulatory mechanism.
A compensatory mechanism to acute hemorrhage .
Low blood pressure->Renin->angiotensin I ->angiotensin
II->Aldosterone->Na and water retention->ECF
expansion->high blood pressure->Atrial Natriuretic
Peptide-> Na and water excretion -> normal BP
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