This document provides instructions for performing necropsies on birds in remote areas with limited resources. It details the necessary materials, safety procedures, sample collection techniques, and organization of the manual. Photos show the step-by-step dissection of an albatross chick, with accompanying text to describe normal organ appearances and abnormalities to note during examination. The goal is to assist biologists in properly examining carcasses and collecting samples to determine causes of death when specialist help is unavailable.
This color atlas of poultry diseases .This is very useful guide for poultry farmers & poultry practicing professionals.The atlas contains colour photographs demonstrating the overall pathology of birds. The book includes more than 50 diseases from avian infectious pathology and a similar number from non-infectious pathology.There are both classic and well known diseases and new and little known diseases. The book is designed for veterinarians, veterinary students, poultry farmers and poultry specialists.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
Introduction about quail
Advantages of quail farming
Housing
Feeding
Egg and meat production
Nutrient content in egg and meat
Incubation and hatching
Chicks management
Quail diseases and its management
Centers for parent quails and interesting facts about quail etc.,
A concise class lecture for veterinary students, practitioners, and researchers covering the functional anatomy of reproductive organs of domestic animals and pet animals.
This color atlas of poultry diseases .This is very useful guide for poultry farmers & poultry practicing professionals.The atlas contains colour photographs demonstrating the overall pathology of birds. The book includes more than 50 diseases from avian infectious pathology and a similar number from non-infectious pathology.There are both classic and well known diseases and new and little known diseases. The book is designed for veterinarians, veterinary students, poultry farmers and poultry specialists.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
Introduction about quail
Advantages of quail farming
Housing
Feeding
Egg and meat production
Nutrient content in egg and meat
Incubation and hatching
Chicks management
Quail diseases and its management
Centers for parent quails and interesting facts about quail etc.,
A concise class lecture for veterinary students, practitioners, and researchers covering the functional anatomy of reproductive organs of domestic animals and pet animals.
Biology A Laboratory Guide the Natural world bacterial infection. The.pdfhardjasonoco14599
Biology A Laboratory Guide the Natural world bacterial infection. The thymus gland is where T
cels (mmune system cells) mature, especial 1. Which hallmark chordate characteristic( ly in
younger animals and secretes hormones the immune response. The do you see in the rat? is
bilobed and located on both sides cf the neck post anal tal nerve Drsal no (Figure 5) Behind the
glands and muscles you will tind the trachea, or windpipe. The trachea is lined with rings of
cartilage. The rings of keep the trachea from as a food Chord passes down the esophagus that lies
dorsal to the trachea. 2. Which of these are not found in adult hu- VISCERA OF THE THORAX
mans? have 5. Folow the trachea to where it branches into the two bronchi, one leading to each
lung. Look at the poston of the lungs in the body cavity. Notice by a thin layer of tis- that the
heart is Cectan), and humans have sue cated the pericardium. Remove the per- cardium, and
identify the atria and ventricles. continue the dissection 6. If your instructor wants to next week,
close the body cavites of your rat and place the animal in a plastic bag Seal the bag and label it
with your intals and lab period, so that you can easily find it next time (Proceed with Where are
the rat\'s sensory structures locat- Step 7 before you leave class. ed? What fundamental
eolutionary tion does this illustrate 7, when your gloves are off and your lab bench is to listen to
your part. clean, use a stethoscope i far, Paw, and ner\'s breathing sounds. As the diaphragm con
tracts, the lungs expand and air moves into them. Listen to each lobe of your partner\'s lungs. 4
Why is it an advantage for the epiglottis to fit over the trachea? FoURE 5 Neck Viscera
Solution
3. Where are the rat’s sensory structures located? What fundamental evolutionary innovation
does this illustrates?
Answer:
The rat’s sensory structures are located between the ribs and the top of the hips. Examples of
these are feet, eyes, nose/ whiskers, and ears. Like humans,the rats are vertebrate mammals. In
many aspects of its structural organization are common with humans. Thus, they have many
similarities and these similarities of structures among related organisms shows evidence of
common ancestry..
Diagnosis of Internal organs of fish. Anatomy of fish. Step by step procedure to handle and dissect the internal organs and sample collection for disease diagnosis.
Significance of abattoir finding among slaughtered sheepABOHEMEED ALY
This is to approve that thesis presented by Mahmoud
Adel Mahmoud Ahmed Mustafa. Entitled Significance of
abattoir finding among slaughtered sheep. For the
The degree of M.V.Sc.
HANDBOOK of POULTRY DISEASES IMPORTANT IN AFRICAABOHEMEED ALY
Clinical Signs and Lesions
Differential Diagnosis
Cause and Transmission
Diagnosis, Treatment,
Prevention and Recovery
THIS HANDBOOK IS DESIGNED TO BE USED AS A REFERENCE FOR THE POULTRY HEALTH FOR DEVELOPMENT COURSE AND AS A REFERENCE FOR FIELD VETERINARIANS IN AFRICA
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Avian necropsy manual for biologists in remote refuges
1. AVIAN NECROPSY
MANUAL FOR
BIOLOGISTS IN REMOTE
REFUGES
BY
THIERRY M. WORK, DVM
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH
CENTER
HAWAII FIELD STATION
2000
2. 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBJECT PAGES
INTRODUCTION 3
MATERIALS NEEDED FOR NECROPSY, LABELS, SAFETY 4
TAKING SAMPLES 5
HOW MANUAL IS ORGANIZED 8
EXTERNAL EXAM 9
OPENING CARCASS 11
REMOVING LIVER AND HEART 16
LOCATING SPLEEN 18
REMOVING TRACHEA AND GI TRACT 19
RECOGNIZING GONADS 23
REMOVING LUNGS AND KIDNEYS 25
REMOVING BRAIN 26
THINGS TO DO WHEN DONE & RECIPE FOR FORMALIN 27
CHECKLIST OF ORGANS TO SAVE IN FORMALIN 28
NECROPSY FORM 29
3. 3
INTRODUCTION
This manual is for biologists in remote refuges who have little to no background in
necropsy techniques. It is intended to assist you in recognition of bird organs and
in procurement of appropriate samples for pathologic and other laboratory assays.
The manual will probably be most useful in situations when wildlife disease
specialists are unable to assist in sample collection due to remoteness or
inaccessibility of the site.
WHY DO A NECROPSY?
A necropsy is one of the basic tools used to determine why an animal dies. It
involves the thorough examination of a carcass externally and internally for any
indications of causes of death (lesions). A good necropsy involves careful
observations of lesions or abnormalities and procurement, labeling, and storage of
tissue samples. Laboratory tests on properly preserved tissues allow wildlife
disease specialists to systematically evaluate potential causes of wildlife mortality.
The better job you do with the field necropsy, the better the chance that wildlife
disease specialists can determine what killed the animal. As such, select the
freshest carcasses and, if at all possible, avoid freezing and thawing the carcass
prior to necropsy as this can compromise microscopic appearance of tissues.
When doing a necropsy, be observant and record your findings. If possible, take
close up photos of interesting findings.
Generally, findings will deviate from normal either in shape, color, consistency,
number or size. For example, a normal bird liver would be firm with sharp borders
and have a homogenous chocolate brown color. An abnormality in the liver may
manifest itself in the form of abnormal coloration (spots or blotches), consistency
(too soft, too hard), size (excessively large or small), or shape (lumps, bumps or
scars). Obviously, many of these interpretations require knowing what a "normal"
organ looks like. Although this is best learned by doing many necropsies,
reference to photographs (as in this manual), will aid the novice in assessing
whether or not an organ appears normal or not.
4. 4
MATERIALS NEEDED FOR A NECROPSY
Scissors Toothed forceps Rubber gloves
Plastic bags Jars Indelible marker
Knife Cutting board Water
Scalpel handle Shears 10% formalin
Scalpel blade Labels Aluminum foil
Pencil Paper
Additional items that would be helpful include a scale, ruler and camera. Several
types of plastic bags should be available including larger bags for carcass disposal
and smaller bags (whirlpaks) to store individual organs.
The back of the manual has a recipe for making buffered formalin (a tissue
preservative). It is unlikely that you will have the resources to make buffered
formalin on site. An adequate substitute is mixing 15 parts of 37% formaldehyde
with 85 parts seawater. Placing organs directly in 37% formaldehyde or
unbuffered formalin is unacceptable.
SAFETY
When doing a necropsy, follow proper hygiene. At a minimum, wear gloves and do
not eat or drink while dissecting a carcass. Remember, you don’t know whether
you’re dealing with a disease transmissible to humans.
When working with formalin, ALWAYS use gloves, work in a well ventilated area
and wash hands after all necropsies. All formalin containers should be clearly
labeled.
LABELS
All labels should be written in indelible ink (e.g. sharpie) or pencil...no ball point
pens. Minimum information on the label should include location of collection,
date and unique specimen ID. To avoid confusion, abbreviate the month (i.e. MAR
5, 2000 not 3/5/00).
5. 5
TAKING SAMPLES FOR LABORATORY ANALYSIS:
FORMALIN FIXATION (2 steps)
(Formalin fixation allows pathologists to examine tissues under the microscope and diagnose
disease)
1) To ensure that enough formalin is present in the jar to allow for adequate
fixation of the tissue, the ratio of formalin to tissue should be a minimum of 2 parts
formalin to 1 part tissue by volume (Fig. 1). All tissues from one animal can go
into one jar. Label the jar.
2) Ensure that tissue section is not too large to allow for adequate fixation. A piece
of tissue should generally be no thicker than ~0.5 cm (1/4 in). If there is a lesion,
make sure to take a portion of "normal tissue" adjacent to the lesion (Fig. 2). This
is crucial as many diseases are diagnosed based on microscopic examination of the
"margin" between a normal and abnormal tissue.
It is advisable to change the formalin once (say after 24 hours of fixation). This
will result in better fixation and staining for microscopic analysis. Used formalin
should be disposed of appropriately. Tissues in formalin should never be frozen.
FREEZING (1 step)
(Frozen organs can be used to isolate microorganisms or detect poisons)
1) Collect a good amount (20-30 g or 1/4 to 1/2 cup) of tissue, place in a small
plastic bag, seal and label the bag using an indelible marker. In some cases, you
may be asked to wrap the sample in aluminum foil prior to placement in a plastic
bag. Collect tissue for freezing as early as possible during the necropsy to avoid
contamination by gut contents, feathers, dirt, etc. Tissues should be placed in a
freezer (-20C or colder is best) and kept frozen when shipped to the laboratory.
8. 8
HOW THIS MANUAL IS ORGANIZED
The rest of this manual will show you, step by step, how to dissect a bird carcass
using an albatross chick as our "model" bird. All birds have the organs shown here
although size and shape may vary form one species to the next. The photos in this
manual should give you a good general idea of what "normal" organs look like.
This manual is composed of a series of photos with a facing page of text. There
are two sorts of icons throughout the text, scissors and glasses.
Sections with scissors icons are in bold type and describe the nuts and bolts of
taking a carcass apart.
Sections with glasses describe organs and their appearance. Commonly
encountered abnormalities appear in italics. Use these sections as a reference for
taking notes on appearance of different organs. As you go through a necropsy, it
would be wise to take samples of organs as you encounter them. There is a table at
the end summarizing what organs you should have taken in formalin when you are
done with your necropsy.
NOTE: This manual assumes you are doing a post-mortem on a fresh dead bird
(either you saw it die or it died within the last 12-24 hours). Appearance of some
organs (and their diagnostic value) will change dramatically depending on stage of
decomposition so it is best to limit your efforts to the freshest specimens available.
Finally, remember TO NOTE AND RECORD EVERYTHING THAT YOU SEE.
There can NEVER be too much detail.
9. 9
EXTERNAL EXAM
Lay the bird on its back. Examine the bird externally from stem to stern for
any abnormality or damage. You may want to take photos of any
abnormality or for ID confirmation. When examining the carcass, check the
following:
-Plumage: Is there down and where is it distributed? Do the wing, tail and body
feathers look normal? Are the feathers clean?
-Weight of bird (if you have a scale)
-Major wing and leg bones and skull: are they intact?
-Cloaca: Is there pasting of feces around the cloaca and if so, what is the color? Is
there anything protruding out of the cloaca?
-Nostrils: Is there anything (blood or mucus) leaking out of them?
-Mouth: the mucus membranes in the mouth should be pink. Colors like red or
blue-gray are abnormal. Note any ulcers, cuts, plaques, growths, spots or lumps in
the oral cavity. Also note the presence of foreign material or blood.
-Eyes: Are the eyes collapsed, cloudy, weepy? Are there abnormal warty growths
or pustules around the eyes?
-Beak and feet: Are there abnormal warty growths or pustules on the feet or beak?
If so, what is their distribution?
-Any other abnormality: lumps, bumps or exudates in unusual places.
10. 10
Prior to starting the necropsy, wet the ventral (belly) feathers with soapy
water to avoid masses of flying feathers and down during the necropsy. In
this photograph, the bird has been soaked and a skin incision started on the
neck.
When you cut, keep the skin taut as it will make cutting easier. The
best way to start is to cut the skin along the dotted line (as illustrated). Be
careful with the scalpel blade when you reach the abdomen as there is only
one layer of skin separating your blade from the viscera. Ideally, you want to
avoid puncturing viscera early in the necropsy and contaminating the body
cavity with gut contents.
11. 11
Once you have cut down the midline, peel back the skin to expose the legs,
breast muscles, keel bone and abdominal cavity as depicted in this
photograph.
The following organs should now be visible:
TRACHEA (windpipe): This organ is a semi-rigid tube running down the neck
parallel and close to the esophagus.
ESOPHAGUS: The soft tubular organ adjacent to the trachea.
BREAST AND LEG MUSCLES: The breast muscles are attached to the keel bone
and should be a homogenous red brown as should be the leg muscles.
Abnormalities: in muscles include bruises, pale areas, or a gritty texture.
Now is also a good time to examine the skin for bruising which manifests itself as
red splotches. If there is bruising, note its distribution. Also examine the neck to
make sure it's intact.
Take your shears and cut the breast muscles and ribs along the dotted line
illustrated. Note that when you reach the cranial end of the breast bone, you
will encounter some thick bones that must also be cut (hence why we use
shears). Once all the bone attachments are cut, you can cut away membranes
attaching the keelbone to the body. These membranes are air sacs.
AIR SACS: They should be translucent to slightly opaque.
Abnormalities: Cloudiness or plaques on these membranes are abnormal and
should be noted.
12. 12
With the keelbone and breast muscles removed, the following organs should now
be visible:
TRACHEA
AND
ESOPHAGUS
BREAST
MUSCLE
KEEL
BONE
ABDOMINAL
CAVITY
13. 13
ESOPHAGUS (mentioned earlier)
TRACHEA (mentioned earlier)
LIVER: Should be homogenous dark brown, firm, with a smooth surface with
sharp borders.
Abnormalities: Swelling, rounded borders, rough surface, paleness, soft or mushy
consistency, spots or a lumpy appearance.
HEART: should be red-pink and have a fairly smooth surface. The bird heart is
similar to ours in that it has 4 chambers. Feel free to cut into it. The interior will
have numerous glistening smooth ridges...this is normal. Also, in fat birds, there
will be a line of fat on the heart near the head end. This fat should be firm and
white or yellow-white.
Abnormalities: red or white spots on the heart muscle, a rough sandpaper like
surface on the exterior or interior, semiliquid fat on the heart.
THYROIDS: These are small, round, pink structures near the
thoracic inlet (where the neck meets the thorax). Note if one or both appear
abnormally enlarged.
PROVENTRICULUS: The proventriculus is an extension of the
esophagus and is a food storage organ. Because of this, it has in seabirds
tremendous capabilities of distension. In this bird, the proventriculus is filled with
squid beaks and plastics and looks quite distended. In birds with an empty
proventriculus, it may be no wider than the neck esophagus.
Close ups of the above organs are shown on page 15.
16. 16
LIVER
When removing the heart, grab the large arteries with your forceps and cut
the arteries with scissors. Try to avoid grabbing the heart muscle with forceps
as you can damage the tissue.
When removing the liver, try to hold onto it using the ligaments that attach it
to the viscera. This is easier
than grabbing the liver itself
with forceps which will damage
it. The other option is to gently
hold the liver with your fingers.
Again, try to handle the organ
as little as possible. In some
instances, when dissecting out
the liver, you will see a sac
distended with dark green
material. This is the gallbladder
which contains bile. Try to
gently dissect this organ away without cutting it. If you do cut the
gallbladder, try to limit the amount of bile contacting other organs as this will
degrade the microscopic appearance of the organ.
This photo shows the carcass without liver and heart. In this bird, the
proventriculus is massively distended with material (plastic).
HEART
18. 18
By rotating the proventriculus on its long axis, you will reveal the
spleen located at the tail end of the proventriculus.
SPLEEN: This is a bean shaped organ located on the underside of the pro-
ventriculus. It is normally brown-pink and about the size pictured here.
Abnormalities: A grossly enlarged spleen, nodules, or abnormal spots or splotches
is abnormal and should be noted.
SPLEEN
PRO-
VENTRICULUS
HEAD
19. 19
REMOVING THE TRACHEA.
As you follow the trachea down the neck to the thorax, you will see that it
splits into a Y. Cut the arms of the Y and by pulling, you can peel the trachea
away from the esophagus. This is a good time to cut the trachea open and
examine the lumen (inside of the trachea).
TRACHEAL LUMEN: The lumen should be off-white and smooth with a regular
series of ridges and contain nothing but air.
Abnormalities: Red color, plaques, rough areas, foam or other exudate (blood or
mucus) in the lumen.
REMOVING THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GI tract).
First, undermine and isolate the esophagus from the neck. Sever the
esophagus near the head and using it as a handle, pull up and begin loosening
the attachments of the GI tract to the body. You will see that the GI tract is
loosely attached to the body cavity and can be fairly easily removed. When
you get to the cloaca (outside opening to the large intestine), try to cut around
the cloaca so that the end result is the entire GI tract with the cloaca attached.
HEAD
21. 21
In this photo, the entire intestinal tract has been extracted and its components
labeled. The GI tract is composed of the esophagus, proventriculus, ventriculus,
small and large intestines. Cut into portions of each sections to examine the
external wall, mucosal surfaces (inside lining), presence of parasites and contents.
ESOPHAGUS: The mucosa should be smooth or slightly wrinkled and light brown
to tan.
Abnormalities: Rough sandpaper appearance, plaques, nodules, ulcers, red color
or blood.
PROVENTRICULUS: The mucosa should be smooth and light brown to tan. This
organ may have a bit of white-tan mucus.
Abnormalities: Rough sandpaper appearance, plaques, nodules, ulcers, red color
or blood, worms. NOTE THE CONTENTS
VENTRICULUS: In albatross, this organ is rather small. In ducks and geese, this
organ is the gizzard. The main thing to note here are what the contents are.
Abnormalities: Rough sandpaper appearance, plaques, nodules, ulcers, red color
or blood, worms. NOTE THE CONTENTS
SMALL AND LARGE INTESTINE: The mucosa and external surface should be
smooth and light brown to tan. This organ may contain a bit of white-tan mucus.
Abnormalities: Rough sandpaper appearance, plaques, nodules, ulcers, red color
or blood, worms. NOTE THE CONTENTS
PANCREAS: This organ sits in the first loop of the small intestine as it exits the
ventriculus. This organ is tan to white and amorphous.
Abnormalities: Excessive enlargement or nodules.
When collecting for formalin fixation, cut segments about 1/2 inch long and DO
NOT tie off the ends. When noting contents, indicate if you see any parasites
(worms).
23. 23
Once you have taken out the GI tract, you are left with the lungs, gonads and
kidneys.
LUNGS: Bird lungs sit tight against the thorax. They should be a uniform light to
dark pink.
Abnormalities: Red mottling or uniformly red or grey. Yellow or tan nodules in the
lung. When placed in formalin, the lungs should float.
KIDNEYS: The kidneys should be a homogenous red-brown to tan and lobulated.
In some cases, the kidneys will be filled with excretion products and will have a
pale reticulation throughout.
Abnormalities: Spots, pale color, masses or shrunken size.
GONADS: The gonads sit at the head end of the kidney. The gonads of a mature
bird will allow you to differentiate males from females as depicted below. This
may not be possible to do in immature birds as the gonads are not developed
enough. This is the case in the adjacent photo. In adult birds, the male gonads are
roughly bean shaped while the female gonad looks like a cluster of grapes (see
below).
FEMALE
KIDNEY
MALE
HEAD
25. 25
KIDNEYS LUNG
To remove the lungs, peel them away from the thorax as pictured.
This can be most easily done by grabbing the edge of the lung and
undermining the lung from
the thoracic wall as
pictured. When you place
the lungs in formalin, they
should float. NOTE IT if
they sink.
To remove the kidneys, grab the cranial pole by the gonads and begin
dissection away with scissors underneath. As you gently pull on the kidney,
cut away attachments until you have completely removed the organ.
KIDNEYS LUNG
26. 26
You are almost done. The last step of this process is to remove the
brain. To do this you will need to peel the skin off the skull. Cut a crown
around the skull with the tips of the shears and pop off the skull cap as shown.
After removing the skull cap,
hold the head by the beak, tilt
the head upside down, insert
your scissors under the front
of the brain and cut
attachments to the brain. The
brain should begin falling out
as you cut the nerves
attaching it to the skull.
Continue dissecting out the
brain until it falls to the
cutting board.
Ideally, the brain when correctly removed should look something like the
picture below. Cut the brain midline down the long axis and place half of it in
formalin
27. 27
WHEN YOU ARE DONE WITH A NECROPSY, ENSURE THAT:
1) All samples and jars are labeled with a unique number referring to the animal
along with date of collection. All organs collected (see p. 28).
2) All information on the necropsy record sheet is complete (see p. 29-30).
3) All "dirty" gloves and other material are disposed of properly. Any sharp items
such as scalpel blades and needles should be disposed of in a rigid, sealable
puncture proof container (i.e. a plastic jug).
4) Any used formalin is to be stored in sealed containers labeled with the following
words: "WARNING: FORMALDEHYDE: HANDLE WITH GLOVES" and
disposed of appropriately.
TWO RECIPES FOR 10% FORMALIN
RECIPE 1
If you have graduated cylinders and scale mix the following:
Na2HPO4 (Sodium phosphate dibasic) 6.5 g
NaH2PO4.H2O (Sodium phosphate monobasic) 4.0 g
Fresh water 900 ml
37% formaldehyde 100 ml
RECIPE 2
If you have no scales or measuring apparatus
37% formaldehyde 150 ml or 15 parts
Seawater 850 ml or 85 parts
WHEN PREPARING FORMALIN, USE GLOVES AND WORK IN A
WELL VENTILATED AREA
28. 28
CHECKLIST OF ORGANS YOU SHOULD HAVE TAKEN IN FORMALIN
Plain numbers indicate where organ is mentioned in text.
Bold numbers indicate figures in which organs are labeled.
ORGAN PAGE(S)
TRACHEA 11, 12
ESOPHAGUS 11, 12, 13, 14, 22
MUSCLE 12
LIVER 13, 14, 15, 16
HEART 13, 14, 15, 16
THYROID 13, 14, 15
PROVENTRICULUS 13, 14, 15, 22
SPLEEN 18, 22
VENTRICULUS 21, 22
SMALL INTESTINE 21, 22
PANCREAS 21, 22
LARGE INTESTINES/CLOACA 21, 22
LUNGS 23, 24, 25
KIDNEYS 23, 24, 25
GONADS 23, 24
BRAIN 26