The document discusses autoimmune diseases, which occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages normal body tissues. There are two main types - organ-specific diseases that target a single organ, and systemic diseases that can affect multiple body systems. Some examples provided include type 1 diabetes, Graves' disease, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The causes of autoimmune diseases are unknown but genetics and environmental triggers may play a role. Symptoms and treatment options vary depending on the specific disease.
The document discusses autoimmunity and immunodeficiency. It defines autoimmunity as the body's immune system attacking its own antigens, potentially causing tissue damage. Normally, immune tolerance prevents this. When tolerance is breached, various autoimmune diseases can occur. The document also defines and classifies primary and secondary immunodeficiencies, providing examples of defects and common infections associated with different types of immunodeficiencies. Laboratory tests for diagnosing autoimmune diseases and immunodeficiencies are also outlined.
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy body tissues. There are over 80 types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The causes are not fully understood but may involve genetic and environmental factors. Common treatments aim to suppress the immune system to reduce symptoms, though diagnosis and treatment can be challenging given the wide variation in symptoms and tissues affected across different autoimmune diseases.
The document discusses the innate and adaptive immune system. It provides details on:
1) The innate immune system's first line of defense includes physical barriers like skin and membranes, inflammation, and the complement system.
2) The adaptive immune system provides another layer of protection and has B cells that secrete antibodies and T cells that help activate immune responses.
3) Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, and examples provided are type 1 diabetes which attacks pancreatic beta cells and Myasthenia Gravis.
This document outlines the topics that will be covered in a course on immunology, including: the basics of the immune system and disease; immunopathology; and therapeutic applications of immunology. The course will cover the structure and function of the immune system, cells and molecules involved, innate and adaptive immunity, immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, hypersensitivities, lymphoproliferative diseases, and clinical immunology. References and resources will include lecture notes, textbooks, and online materials.
Autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases dr. ihsan alsaimarydr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
The document provides an overview of the immune system and autoimmune disorders. It discusses the organs and cells involved in immunity, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, and neutrophils. It describes innate and acquired immunity. Types of autoimmune disorders mentioned include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Key symptoms, diagnostic tests, and medical management are outlined for these conditions. Nursing interventions focus on promoting comfort, self-care, education, and adapting to life with a chronic condition.
The document discusses autoimmunity and immunodeficiency. It defines autoimmunity as the body's immune system attacking its own antigens, potentially causing tissue damage. Normally, immune tolerance prevents this. When tolerance is breached, various autoimmune diseases can occur. The document also defines and classifies primary and secondary immunodeficiencies, providing examples of defects and common infections associated with different types of immunodeficiencies. Laboratory tests for diagnosing autoimmune diseases and immunodeficiencies are also outlined.
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy body tissues. There are over 80 types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The causes are not fully understood but may involve genetic and environmental factors. Common treatments aim to suppress the immune system to reduce symptoms, though diagnosis and treatment can be challenging given the wide variation in symptoms and tissues affected across different autoimmune diseases.
The document discusses the innate and adaptive immune system. It provides details on:
1) The innate immune system's first line of defense includes physical barriers like skin and membranes, inflammation, and the complement system.
2) The adaptive immune system provides another layer of protection and has B cells that secrete antibodies and T cells that help activate immune responses.
3) Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, and examples provided are type 1 diabetes which attacks pancreatic beta cells and Myasthenia Gravis.
This document outlines the topics that will be covered in a course on immunology, including: the basics of the immune system and disease; immunopathology; and therapeutic applications of immunology. The course will cover the structure and function of the immune system, cells and molecules involved, innate and adaptive immunity, immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, hypersensitivities, lymphoproliferative diseases, and clinical immunology. References and resources will include lecture notes, textbooks, and online materials.
Autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases dr. ihsan alsaimarydr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
The document provides an overview of the immune system and autoimmune disorders. It discusses the organs and cells involved in immunity, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, and neutrophils. It describes innate and acquired immunity. Types of autoimmune disorders mentioned include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Key symptoms, diagnostic tests, and medical management are outlined for these conditions. Nursing interventions focus on promoting comfort, self-care, education, and adapting to life with a chronic condition.
This document discusses autoimmune diseases, including their causes, symptoms, and treatments. Some key points:
- Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks the body's own organs and tissues, causing damage. They can affect specific organs or multiple systems.
- Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, type 1 diabetes, Graves' disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus.
- Current treatments aim to suppress the immune system response using immunosuppressive drugs, cytotoxic drugs, plasmapheresis, or organ removal. Research is also investigating ways to induce tolerance to self-antigens or remove self-reactive immune cells.
Immunology Lecture day 1 ADDU section DElla Navarro
1. The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system, including the inflammatory process, anatomy and physiology of the immune system, and different types of immune responses.
2. It discusses the immune system in detail, including the different white blood cells, lymphoid tissues, types of immunity, immune response types, stages of immune response, and immunoglobulins.
3. The document also covers primary and secondary immunodeficiencies like HIV/AIDS, and provides the stages and diagnosis of HIV infection.
The document discusses various aspects of tumor immunity and tumor antigens:
1. Tumor antigens are antigens produced by tumor cells that trigger an immune response. They can be used as tumor markers for diagnosis and potentially for cancer therapy.
2. There are two main types of tumor antigens - tumor associated antigens, which increase with tumor growth, and tumor specific transplantation antigens, which develop during tumor development and prevent tumor transplantation between identical hosts.
3. The immune system typically mounts responses against tumor antigens via antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Understanding tumor antigens is important for cancer immunology and developing immunotherapies to treat cancer.
This document discusses immunity and autoimmunity. It begins by defining autoimmunity as the loss of tolerance to self, resulting in the production of antibodies or lymphocytes that react with self components. The key criteria for classifying a disease as autoimmune are also outlined. Several potential mechanisms for autoimmunity are then examined, including sequestered antigens, cross-reactive antigens, altered self antigens, loss of immunoregulation, and genetic factors. Finally, some examples of specific autoimmune diseases are briefly described.
This document discusses autoimmune disorders, which occur when the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. It provides criteria for classifying autoimmune disorders and discusses some of the potential causes, including genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. It also summarizes some specific autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), and provides an overview of common treatment approaches which aim to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation.
Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system loses tolerance to its own tissues and mounts an immune response against them. There are several potential mechanisms for this loss of tolerance, including molecular mimicry between foreign and self antigens, sequestered self antigens being exposed to the immune system, and failures of regulatory mechanisms that normally suppress autoreactive immune cells. Autoimmune diseases result when this autoreactivity causes tissue damage. Examples include diseases caused by autoantibodies like rheumatoid arthritis, Graves' disease, and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, as well as those caused by autoreactive T cells like multiple sclerosis and insulin-dependent diabetes.
Organ-specific autoimmune diseases affect a single organ through immune responses directed against antigens in that organ. Examples include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, where antibodies attack thyroid proteins and cause hypothyroidism, and myasthenia gravis, where antibodies block acetylcholine receptors and cause muscle weakness. Type 1 diabetes results from an immune attack on insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells that leads to insulin deficiency. Graves' disease occurs when antibodies activate thyroid stimulating hormone receptors, causing overproduction of thyroid hormones. Addison's disease involves the destruction of adrenal glands by an autoimmune response.
1. The document describes Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues and organs.
2. SLE causes inflammation and damage to tissues and organs like joints, kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood, and skin. Antibodies produced by the immune system against the body's healthy cells and tissues contribute to this inflammation.
3. The author was diagnosed with SLE in 2012 after experiencing weight gain, feverish aches and pains, hair loss, and kidney damage. She currently takes medication and follows a special diet to treat her SLE.
The document summarizes key components of the innate immune system, including physical and chemical barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, phagocytosis by white blood cells, complement proteins, interferons, inflammation, and fever. It describes how these nonspecific defenses provide first and second lines of protection against pathogens and help activate the adaptive immune response.
The document discusses autoimmunity and several autoimmune diseases. It explains that autoimmunity occurs when the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, as in diseases like Hashimoto's thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, Graves' disease, myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. These diseases are caused by a combination of autoantibodies, T cells, cytokines and other immune responses that damage organs like the thyroid, red blood cells, muscles, joints and nervous system. Treatment involves replacing missing hormones or proteins, or suppressing the immune system.
This document summarizes several organ-specific autoimmune disorders:
1. Hashimoto's thyroiditis causes inflammation and damage to the thyroid gland through autoantibodies against thyroid proteins. This leads to hypothyroidism.
2. Autoimmune anemias include pernicious anemia caused by intrinsic factor antibodies impairing vitamin B12 absorption, and autoimmune hemolytic anemia where antibodies lyse or phagocytose red blood cells.
3. Goodpasture's syndrome features antibodies against lung and kidney basement membranes, activating complement and damaging these organs through inflammation.
4. Type 1 diabetes results from an autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells by cytotoxic T cells and
Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy body tissues. The document discusses several common autoimmune disorders including Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Addison's disease, myasthenia gravis, and type 1 diabetes. Graves' disease causes an overactive thyroid. Hashimoto's thyroiditis involves antibody attacks against the thyroid gland and leads to hypothyroidism. Addison's disease is characterized by deficiencies in cortisol and aldosterone due to attacks on the adrenal glands. Myasthenia gravis involves antibodies blocking muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas is damaged by autoimmunity, preventing insulin production
The document provides an overview of immunology topics covered in a course, including the immune system and disease, immunopathology, and therapeutic applications. The course covers basics of the immune system, innate and adaptive immunity, cells and molecules of the immune system, and applications like immunization, transplantation, and immunotherapy. Immunopathology topics include immunodeficiency, autoimmunity, hypersensitivity, and malignancies of the immune system. Therapeutic applications focus on immunization, immunomodulation, transplantation, immunosuppression, and replacement therapies.
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance and removes antigens from the body by filtering fluids through lymph nodes. The immune system protects the body through both nonspecific defenses like barriers and inflammation, as well as specific responses against antigens. Immune cells develop from blood cell precursors in the bone marrow and thymus, then circulate or migrate to lymphoid tissues and sites of infection/injury. B cells produce antibodies, while T cells regulate responses and kill infected or abnormal cells. Exposure to an antigen leads to proliferation of responsive immune cells and production of effector molecules, resulting in antigen elimination or future memory responses.
Your body's immune system protects you from disease and infection. But if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake. Autoimmune diseases can affect many parts of the body.
No one is sure what causes autoimmune diseases. They do tend to run in families. Women - particularly African-American, Hispanic-American, and Native-American women - have a higher risk for some autoimmune diseases.
There are more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases, and some have similar symptoms. This makes it hard for your health care provider to know if you really have one of these diseases, and if so, which one. Getting a diagnosis can be frustrating and stressful. Often, the first symptoms are fatigue, muscle aches and a low fever. The classic sign of an autoimmune disease is inflammation, which can cause redness, heat, pain and swelling.
The diseases may also have flare-ups, when they get worse, and remissions, when symptoms get better or disappear. Treatment depends on the disease, but in most cases one important goal is to reduce inflammation. Sometimes doctors prescribe corticosteroids or other drugs that reduce your immune response.
Autoimmunity results from a failure of self-tolerance mechanisms in the immune system. This allows autoreactive lymphocytes and autoantibodies that target self-antigens to develop. A combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors contribute to autoimmune diseases. Tissue damage in these diseases can occur through various mechanisms, including cytotoxic antibodies, immune complexes, and T-cell mediated responses, leading to pathological changes in organs and tissues. Common autoimmune diseases involve autoreactivity against receptors, organ-specific cells, or cellular molecules like DNA and rheumatoid factor.
This document defines key terms related to immunity and the immune system. It describes the immune system as composed of cells, molecules, and organs that defend the body against foreign invaders like bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system is made up of nonspecific defenses that provide general protection and specific defenses that target specific pathogens. Nonspecific defenses include barriers like skin and mucous membranes, as well as responses like inflammation, fever, and interferon. Specific defenses include antibodies produced by B cells and cell-mediated responses carried out by T cells. The document also discusses disorders of the immune system.
This document discusses autoimmunity and provides examples of several autoimmune diseases. It begins by defining autoimmunity as an inappropriate immune response directed against self-components. It then discusses how failure to eliminate self-reactive lymphocytes during development can lead to autoimmunity. Several autoimmune diseases are described in detail, including the mechanisms, symptoms, and treatments. Animal models of autoimmune diseases are also discussed.
The document defines common terminology related to the immune system such as agglutination, apoptosis, complement, cytotoxic T cells, and epitope. It then summarizes the structure of the immune system including organs, cells, and functions of lymphoid and myeloid cells. Finally, it outlines the three lines of defense of the human body - anatomical/biochemical barriers, mechanical clearance by white blood cells, and the immune response through antibodies.
This document discusses autoimmunity, which occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues and organs. It describes how Paul Ehrlich first proposed the concept of "horror autotoxicus" to explain this phenomenon. The mechanisms of self-tolerance that normally prevent autoimmunity can fail, leading to either organ-specific or systemic autoimmune diseases. Examples of organ-specific diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis are examples of systemic autoimmune diseases provided.
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of diff...AyushiSharma843565
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of different types of bacteria. Many can be found in and on your body and are beneficial to you. These bacteria make up your microbiome, which keeps your body healthy
WIPO.WIPO administers 26 international treaties that concern a wide variety o...AyushiSharma843565
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the global forum for intellectual property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation. We are a self-funding agency of the United Nations, with 193 member states
This document discusses autoimmune diseases, including their causes, symptoms, and treatments. Some key points:
- Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks the body's own organs and tissues, causing damage. They can affect specific organs or multiple systems.
- Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, type 1 diabetes, Graves' disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus.
- Current treatments aim to suppress the immune system response using immunosuppressive drugs, cytotoxic drugs, plasmapheresis, or organ removal. Research is also investigating ways to induce tolerance to self-antigens or remove self-reactive immune cells.
Immunology Lecture day 1 ADDU section DElla Navarro
1. The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system, including the inflammatory process, anatomy and physiology of the immune system, and different types of immune responses.
2. It discusses the immune system in detail, including the different white blood cells, lymphoid tissues, types of immunity, immune response types, stages of immune response, and immunoglobulins.
3. The document also covers primary and secondary immunodeficiencies like HIV/AIDS, and provides the stages and diagnosis of HIV infection.
The document discusses various aspects of tumor immunity and tumor antigens:
1. Tumor antigens are antigens produced by tumor cells that trigger an immune response. They can be used as tumor markers for diagnosis and potentially for cancer therapy.
2. There are two main types of tumor antigens - tumor associated antigens, which increase with tumor growth, and tumor specific transplantation antigens, which develop during tumor development and prevent tumor transplantation between identical hosts.
3. The immune system typically mounts responses against tumor antigens via antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Understanding tumor antigens is important for cancer immunology and developing immunotherapies to treat cancer.
This document discusses immunity and autoimmunity. It begins by defining autoimmunity as the loss of tolerance to self, resulting in the production of antibodies or lymphocytes that react with self components. The key criteria for classifying a disease as autoimmune are also outlined. Several potential mechanisms for autoimmunity are then examined, including sequestered antigens, cross-reactive antigens, altered self antigens, loss of immunoregulation, and genetic factors. Finally, some examples of specific autoimmune diseases are briefly described.
This document discusses autoimmune disorders, which occur when the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. It provides criteria for classifying autoimmune disorders and discusses some of the potential causes, including genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. It also summarizes some specific autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), and provides an overview of common treatment approaches which aim to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation.
Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system loses tolerance to its own tissues and mounts an immune response against them. There are several potential mechanisms for this loss of tolerance, including molecular mimicry between foreign and self antigens, sequestered self antigens being exposed to the immune system, and failures of regulatory mechanisms that normally suppress autoreactive immune cells. Autoimmune diseases result when this autoreactivity causes tissue damage. Examples include diseases caused by autoantibodies like rheumatoid arthritis, Graves' disease, and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, as well as those caused by autoreactive T cells like multiple sclerosis and insulin-dependent diabetes.
Organ-specific autoimmune diseases affect a single organ through immune responses directed against antigens in that organ. Examples include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, where antibodies attack thyroid proteins and cause hypothyroidism, and myasthenia gravis, where antibodies block acetylcholine receptors and cause muscle weakness. Type 1 diabetes results from an immune attack on insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells that leads to insulin deficiency. Graves' disease occurs when antibodies activate thyroid stimulating hormone receptors, causing overproduction of thyroid hormones. Addison's disease involves the destruction of adrenal glands by an autoimmune response.
1. The document describes Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues and organs.
2. SLE causes inflammation and damage to tissues and organs like joints, kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood, and skin. Antibodies produced by the immune system against the body's healthy cells and tissues contribute to this inflammation.
3. The author was diagnosed with SLE in 2012 after experiencing weight gain, feverish aches and pains, hair loss, and kidney damage. She currently takes medication and follows a special diet to treat her SLE.
The document summarizes key components of the innate immune system, including physical and chemical barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, phagocytosis by white blood cells, complement proteins, interferons, inflammation, and fever. It describes how these nonspecific defenses provide first and second lines of protection against pathogens and help activate the adaptive immune response.
The document discusses autoimmunity and several autoimmune diseases. It explains that autoimmunity occurs when the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, as in diseases like Hashimoto's thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, Graves' disease, myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. These diseases are caused by a combination of autoantibodies, T cells, cytokines and other immune responses that damage organs like the thyroid, red blood cells, muscles, joints and nervous system. Treatment involves replacing missing hormones or proteins, or suppressing the immune system.
This document summarizes several organ-specific autoimmune disorders:
1. Hashimoto's thyroiditis causes inflammation and damage to the thyroid gland through autoantibodies against thyroid proteins. This leads to hypothyroidism.
2. Autoimmune anemias include pernicious anemia caused by intrinsic factor antibodies impairing vitamin B12 absorption, and autoimmune hemolytic anemia where antibodies lyse or phagocytose red blood cells.
3. Goodpasture's syndrome features antibodies against lung and kidney basement membranes, activating complement and damaging these organs through inflammation.
4. Type 1 diabetes results from an autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells by cytotoxic T cells and
Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy body tissues. The document discusses several common autoimmune disorders including Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Addison's disease, myasthenia gravis, and type 1 diabetes. Graves' disease causes an overactive thyroid. Hashimoto's thyroiditis involves antibody attacks against the thyroid gland and leads to hypothyroidism. Addison's disease is characterized by deficiencies in cortisol and aldosterone due to attacks on the adrenal glands. Myasthenia gravis involves antibodies blocking muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas is damaged by autoimmunity, preventing insulin production
The document provides an overview of immunology topics covered in a course, including the immune system and disease, immunopathology, and therapeutic applications. The course covers basics of the immune system, innate and adaptive immunity, cells and molecules of the immune system, and applications like immunization, transplantation, and immunotherapy. Immunopathology topics include immunodeficiency, autoimmunity, hypersensitivity, and malignancies of the immune system. Therapeutic applications focus on immunization, immunomodulation, transplantation, immunosuppression, and replacement therapies.
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance and removes antigens from the body by filtering fluids through lymph nodes. The immune system protects the body through both nonspecific defenses like barriers and inflammation, as well as specific responses against antigens. Immune cells develop from blood cell precursors in the bone marrow and thymus, then circulate or migrate to lymphoid tissues and sites of infection/injury. B cells produce antibodies, while T cells regulate responses and kill infected or abnormal cells. Exposure to an antigen leads to proliferation of responsive immune cells and production of effector molecules, resulting in antigen elimination or future memory responses.
Your body's immune system protects you from disease and infection. But if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake. Autoimmune diseases can affect many parts of the body.
No one is sure what causes autoimmune diseases. They do tend to run in families. Women - particularly African-American, Hispanic-American, and Native-American women - have a higher risk for some autoimmune diseases.
There are more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases, and some have similar symptoms. This makes it hard for your health care provider to know if you really have one of these diseases, and if so, which one. Getting a diagnosis can be frustrating and stressful. Often, the first symptoms are fatigue, muscle aches and a low fever. The classic sign of an autoimmune disease is inflammation, which can cause redness, heat, pain and swelling.
The diseases may also have flare-ups, when they get worse, and remissions, when symptoms get better or disappear. Treatment depends on the disease, but in most cases one important goal is to reduce inflammation. Sometimes doctors prescribe corticosteroids or other drugs that reduce your immune response.
Autoimmunity results from a failure of self-tolerance mechanisms in the immune system. This allows autoreactive lymphocytes and autoantibodies that target self-antigens to develop. A combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors contribute to autoimmune diseases. Tissue damage in these diseases can occur through various mechanisms, including cytotoxic antibodies, immune complexes, and T-cell mediated responses, leading to pathological changes in organs and tissues. Common autoimmune diseases involve autoreactivity against receptors, organ-specific cells, or cellular molecules like DNA and rheumatoid factor.
This document defines key terms related to immunity and the immune system. It describes the immune system as composed of cells, molecules, and organs that defend the body against foreign invaders like bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system is made up of nonspecific defenses that provide general protection and specific defenses that target specific pathogens. Nonspecific defenses include barriers like skin and mucous membranes, as well as responses like inflammation, fever, and interferon. Specific defenses include antibodies produced by B cells and cell-mediated responses carried out by T cells. The document also discusses disorders of the immune system.
This document discusses autoimmunity and provides examples of several autoimmune diseases. It begins by defining autoimmunity as an inappropriate immune response directed against self-components. It then discusses how failure to eliminate self-reactive lymphocytes during development can lead to autoimmunity. Several autoimmune diseases are described in detail, including the mechanisms, symptoms, and treatments. Animal models of autoimmune diseases are also discussed.
The document defines common terminology related to the immune system such as agglutination, apoptosis, complement, cytotoxic T cells, and epitope. It then summarizes the structure of the immune system including organs, cells, and functions of lymphoid and myeloid cells. Finally, it outlines the three lines of defense of the human body - anatomical/biochemical barriers, mechanical clearance by white blood cells, and the immune response through antibodies.
This document discusses autoimmunity, which occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues and organs. It describes how Paul Ehrlich first proposed the concept of "horror autotoxicus" to explain this phenomenon. The mechanisms of self-tolerance that normally prevent autoimmunity can fail, leading to either organ-specific or systemic autoimmune diseases. Examples of organ-specific diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis are examples of systemic autoimmune diseases provided.
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of diff...AyushiSharma843565
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of different types of bacteria. Many can be found in and on your body and are beneficial to you. These bacteria make up your microbiome, which keeps your body healthy
WIPO.WIPO administers 26 international treaties that concern a wide variety o...AyushiSharma843565
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the global forum for intellectual property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation. We are a self-funding agency of the United Nations, with 193 member states
STAINSStains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in t...AyushiSharma843565
Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses of diseases at the microscopic level
BIOTECHNOLOGYBiotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, li...AyushiSharma843565
Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms, or parts of them to develop or create different products. Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology (the use of yeast (a living organism) to produce the desired product).
A centrifuge is a device used to separate components of a mixture on the basis of their size, density, the viscosity of the medium, and the rotor speed.
The centrifuge is commonly used in laboratories for the separation of biological molecules from a crude extract.
In a centrifuge, the sample is kept in a rotor that is rotated about a fixed point (axis), resulting in strong force perpendicular to the axis.
There are different types of centrifuge used for the separation of different molecules, but they all work on the principle of sedimentation.
Laminar Air Flow provides a work area with Aseptic/Sterile conditions for th...AyushiSharma843565
Laminar Air Flow is an enclosed bench designed to prevent contaminations like biological particles or any particle sensitive device.
This closed cabinet is usually made up of stainless steel without any gap or joints where spores might collect.
Laminar Hoods are equipped with a shortwave ultraviolet germicidal lamp to sterilize the shell
Food preservation ,any number of methods by which food is kept from spoilage after harvest. Such practices date to prehistoric times .
Among the oldest methods of preservations are drying ,refrigeration , & fermentation.
Modern methods inclues canning, pasteurization ,freezing, irradiation, & the addition of chemicals.
Advances in packaging marterials have played an important role in modern food preservation .
Prebiotics are the part of food microbiome and food microbiologyAyushiSharma843565
Prebiotics are food substances that promote the growth of certain bacteria (generally beneficial) in the intestines.
Prebiotics are non digestible food ingredients that selectively stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial microorganisms already in people colons.
Food spoilage is the process leading to a product becoming either undesirable...AyushiSharma843565
Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the consumer. The cause of such a process is due to many outside factors as a side-effect of the type of product it is, as well as how the product is packaged and stored.
Silage is defined as a material produced by controlled fermantation of crops under anaerobic condition.
Green fodder can be conserved assilage after fermantation
term mycotoxin is derived from the Greek word – ‘mykes’ meaning ‘fungus’ and ...AyushiSharma843565
Mycotoxins are group of compounds produced by some strains of certain fungi that cause illness or death when ingested by man or animals.
They are low molecular weight, non-antigenic, heat stable secondary fungal metabolites.
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source.
Mushroom belongs in the kingdom Fungi.
Systematic bacteriology is a branch of microbiology that focuses on the classification, identification, and nomenclature of bacteria. It involves the systematic organization of bacteria into taxonomic groups based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetic characteristics. The goal is to create a comprehensive and structured framework for understanding the diversity of bacterial species.
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. There are three main types of microscopy - light microscopy, which uses visible light; electron microscopy, which uses electrons; and scanning probe microscopy, which uses a physical probe. Light microscopes like brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, and fluorescence microscopes are commonly used to view living and stained specimens. Electron microscopes have much higher resolving power than light microscopes and are able to view much smaller structures. Transmission electron microscopes form images using electrons transmitted through thin specimens while scanning electron microscopes form images from electrons emitted from surfaces.
Autoimmunity refers to a condition in which the immune system, which is designed to protect the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells. In a healthy immune system, the body can distinguish between its own cells and foreign substances. However, in autoimmune diseases, this ability is compromised, leading to immune responses against normal, healthy tissues.
There are over 80 known autoimmune diseases, and they can affect almost any part of the body. Some common autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease.
- The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 from a slice of cork under a microscope.
- Cells may be unicellular, consisting of a single cell, or multicellular, consisting of many cells. All cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles and have the ability to reproduce.
- Key characteristics of cells include providing structure and support, containing genetic material in the nucleus, and using mitochondria and other organelles to carry out essential functions like energy production and waste digestion.
Systematic bacteriology, also known as bacterial taxonomy or bacterial systematics, is a branch of microbiology that focuses on the classification, identification, and naming of bacteria. It plays a crucial role in organizing and understanding the diversity of bacteria, which are a diverse group of microorganisms with a wide range of shapes, sizes, and metabolic capabilities
Pathogenic bacteria are microorganisms that have the capability to cause various diseases in their host organisms. They can harm their host by releasing toxins, invading tissues, and disrupting normal physiological processes. Pathogenic bacteria can cause a wide range of illnesses, from mild to severe.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
2. Autoimmunity is the failure of an organism in
recognizing its own constituent parts as self,
thus leading to an immune response against
its own cells and tissues.
Autoimmune diseases are the consequence of
an inappropriate immune response directed to
self-antigens of healthy tissues.
Any disease that results from such an aberrant
immune response is termed as auto immune
diseases.
3. The cause of autoimmune diseases
is unknown. If you have a family
member with an autoimmune
disease, you may be more
susceptible to developing one.
bacteria or virus
drugs
chemical irritants
environmental irritants
4. Autoimmune diseases are of two
types:
1. Organ specific autoimmune
diseases.
2. Systemic autoimmune diseases.
5. An organ-specific disease is one in which
an immune response is directed toward
antigens in a single organ or gland.
Examples :
Autoimmune anaemias
Good pasteur’s syndrome
Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
Grave’s disease
Myasthenia gravis.
6. A systemic autoimmune disease is that in
which the targeted antigens are located
throughout the body.
Examples:
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Multiple sclerosis
Rheumatoid arthritis.
8. It occurs when auto- antibodies are
directed against the antigens of person's
own red blood cells (RBCs).
Triggers complement mediated lysis or
antibody mediated opsonization and
phagocytosis of the red blood cells.
13. Develops due to production of auto-
antibodies against intrinsic factor which is a
membrane bound intestinal protein on gastric
parietal cells.
Intrinsic factor facilitates uptake of vitamin
B12 from small intestine which is necessary
for hematopoiesis.
Binding of auto-antibody to intrinsic factor
mediated absorption of vitamin B12 resulting
in reduction of number of mature red blood
cells below normal.
14. long-term use of certain medications and
antibiotics (methotrexate, azathioprine,
etc.)
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)
folate deficiency caused by poor intake or
malabsorption
15. weakness
headaches
chest pain
weight loss
unsteady gait
Spasticity (stiffness and tightness in the
muscles)
peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves
in your arms and legs)
progressive lesions of the spinal cord
memory loss
16. Vitamin B-12 injections that are slowly
decreased over time
Blood test for iron deficiency followed by
regular blood tests
CBC tests to measure serum cobalamin
and ferritin levels
Blood tests to monitor replacement
treatments
17. occurs when the body’s immune system
mistakenly produce auto-antibodies against
a protein called collagen in the alveoli of
the lungs and the filtering units (glomeruli)
of the kidney.
Damage to glomerular and alveolar
basement membranes leads to
progressive kidney damage and
pulmonary hemorrhage.
18. Exposure to hydrocarbon fumes, metallic
dust, tobacco smoke, or certain illegal
substances such as cocaine may also
increase risk.
19. fatigue, weakness, or lethargy
nausea and/or vomiting
loss of appetite
unhealthy, pale appearance
dry cough or coughing up blood
shortness of breath or difficult breathing
burning sensation during urination
blood in the urine or foamy urine
swelling of the hands and feet
high blood pressure
back pain below the ribs
20. immunosuppressive drugs to keep
immune system from making the
antibodies that damage lungs and
kidneys.
Cyclophosphamide is one example.
corticosteroids like prednisone help
control bleeding in lungs. These
medications also suppress immune
system.
21. It is a form of diabetes mellitus that results
from the autoimmune destruction of the
insulin-producing beta cells in
islets of langerhans of pancreas.
This results in lack of insulin
leading to increased blood
and urine glucose.
24. Taking insulin
Exercising regularly and maintaining a
healthy weight
Eating healthy foods
Monitoring blood sugar
25. It occurs due to an abnormal immune
system response that causes
the thyroid gland to produce
too much thyroid hormone.
mediated by binding of auto antibodies
on TSH receptor present on
thyroid gland, activating adenylate cyclase
resulting in production of thyroid hormones.
30. A neuromuscular disease in which the
muscles under our voluntary control become
easily tired and weak because there is a
problem with how the nerves stimulate the
contraction of muscles.
circulating antibodies cause weakness by
blocking acetylcholine receptors on motor
end plates of muscles, blocking normal
binding of acetylcholine.
31.
32. fatigue
ptosis (drooping of one or both eyelids)
diplopia (double vision)
blurred vision (which may be intermittent)
speech may become soft or nasal.
making eating, drinking, swallowing pills
harder.
develop an unusual or different smile if
certain facial muscles are affected.
33. arm and leg muscles may weaken,
affecting such activities as lifting or
walking .
34. Anticholinesterase agents which improve
neuromuscular transmission and muscle
strength.
Immunosuppressive drugs which
suppress production of abnormal
antibodies.
35. (The Antigen Processing and Presentation) Foreign Pathogen protein
antigen are degraded into small antigenic peptides that from complexes
with class I or Class II MHC Molecule.
The Conversion of Proteins into MHC associate Peptide fragments is called
APC
36. This can process a Protein antigen, break into
peptides and Present it with class I and Class II
molecule on cell surface where it way Interact
with appropriateT Cell Receptors.
They Engulf a a pathogen through phagocytosis
and Presenting it to theWhole Immune Syatem.
So,That Cell Mediated and Humoral Immune
Response Can build Up.
Some Examples of APC are- Dendritic Cell,
Macrophages and B cell.
37. Phagocytosis of Antigen
Fusion of Lysosome and Phagosome
Enzymes start to degradeAntigen
Fragments of Ag presented on APC surface.
Leftover fragments released by Exocytosis.
38.
39. Unlike NK cells of the innate immune system, B cells (B lymphocytes) are
a type of white blood cell that gives rise to antibodies, whereasT cells (T
lymphocytes) are a type of white blood cell that plays an important role
in the immune response.T cells are a key component in the cell-
mediated response—the specific immune response that utilizesT cells to
neutralize cells that have been infected with viruses and certain bacteria.
There are three types ofT cells: cytotoxic, helper, and suppressorT cells.
CytotoxicT cells destroy virus-infected cells in the cell-mediated immune
response, and helperT cells play a part in activating both the antibody
and the cell-mediated immune responses. SuppressorT cells deactivateT
cells and B cells when needed, and thus prevent the immune response
from becoming too intense.
An antigen is a foreign or “non-self” macromolecule that reacts with
cells of the immune system. Not all antigens will provoke a response. For
instance, individuals produce innumerable “self” antigens and are
constantly exposed to harmless foreign antigens, such as food proteins,
pollen, or dust components.The suppression of immune responses to
harmless macromolecules is highly regulated and typically prevents
processes that could be damaging to the host, known as tolerance
40. The innate immune system contains cells that detect potentially harmful antigens, and then
inform the adaptive immune response about the presence of these antigens. Anantigen-
presenting cell (APC) is an immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune
response about an infection. When a pathogen is detected, these APCs willphagocytose the
pathogen and digest it to form many different fragments of the antigen. Antigen fragments will
then be transported to the surface of the APC, where they will serve as an indicator to other
immune cells. Dendritic cells are immune cells that process antigen material; they are present in
the skin (Langerhans cells) and the lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. Sometimes
a dendritic cell presents on the surface of other cells to induce an immune response, thus
functioning as an antigen-presenting cell. Macrophages also function as APCs. Before activation
and differentiation, B cells can also function as APCs.
After phagocytosis by APCs, the phagocytic vesicle fuses with an intracellular lysosome forming
phagolysosome. Within the phagolysosome, the components are broken down into fragments;
the fragments are then loaded onto MHC class I or MHC class II molecules and are transported to
the cell surface for antigen presentation, as illustrated in Figure 1. Note thatT lymphocytes
cannot properly respond to the antigen unless it is processed and embedded in an MHC II
molecule. APCs express MHC on their surfaces, and when combined with a foreign antigen, these
complexes signal a “non-self” invader. Once the fragment of antigen is embedded in the MHC II
molecule, the immune cell can respond. HelperT- cells are one of the main lymphocytes that
respond to antigen-presenting cells. Recall that all other nucleated cells of the body expressed
MHC I molecules, which signal “healthy” or “normal.”
41. An Antibody or Immunoglobulin is Y Shaped structure consist of 4 polypeptides -2 HC & 2
LC , with 1 Variable region and 1 Constant region.
The Structure allows Ab molecules to carry out and dual function,Ag Binding and Biological
Activity Mediation.
The Imp. Feature of Vertebrate Immune System is ability to respond to an apparent Limitless
array of Foreign Ag.
Ig Sequence data accululate, virtually every Ab molecule studied was foundto contain a
unique Aas sequence in its variable region but only limited no. of invariant sequences in ts
Constant region.
The Ab Combine sie made up of VL and VH.
The Specificiy of any Combining site deermine by Aas sequences.
3 famlies of Ig genes exist in mammals, 1 HC, 1 KAPPA chain and 1 LAMBDA chain.
These clusters contan one or ore Constant region genes and no. of variable region gene
segments.
The Formation of VR of Light and Heavy Chain requires join of 2 or 3 genetic element by a
process of Gene rearrangement.
Both Germline and Somatic Cell contribute to Ab Include Somatic Cell Mutation.