This document provides a summary of Austin's Speech Act Theory and the concept of the speech situation. It discusses how Austin analyzed meaning as existing in relations between linguistic conventions, the actual speech situation, and the speaker's intentions. It explains how Austin described utterances as speech acts that can succeed or fail based on felicity conditions related to conventionality, actuality, and intentionality. The document also discusses how Austin distinguished between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts and classified illocutionary acts into different types.
2. The Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutionary ActsThe loc.docxeugeniadean34240
This document discusses speech acts and their components. It describes speech acts as having three components: the locutionary act, which is the literal utterance; the illocutionary act, which is the intended meaning or force behind the utterance; and the perlocutionary act, which is the effect on or intended response from the listener. An example of requesting someone to close the door is used to illustrate how it can function on these three levels. The document also discusses challenges in interpreting speech acts, such as implicit vs explicit meaning, the influence of context and culture, and how misunderstandings can occur.
This document discusses pragmatics and pragmatic contrastive analysis. It defines pragmatics as the study of how context interacts with language to interpret discourse and text. Pragmatic contrastive analysis examines speech acts and conversational interaction between languages. Speech act theory, developed by John Austin, holds that utterances can be locutionary acts (the propositional meaning), illocutionary acts (the core meaning or force), and perlocutionary acts (the effect on the listener). Felicity conditions are the contextual factors that determine if a speech act is performed successfully.
This document provides a summary of John Austin's distinction between constative and performative utterances. It discusses that constative utterances describe a state of affairs and can be true or false, while performative utterances perform an action through their utterance rather than describing something. Some key points made include:
- Austin proposed performatives as a second category of utterances not subject to truth conditions.
- Performatives enact the action they describe, like marrying, betting, or naming.
- The distinction between constatives and performatives is unclear at times, as constatives can imply directives.
- Austin later differentiated between locutionary, illocutionary, and perloc
This document discusses speech act theory, which analyzes the functions of language use beyond just describing or conveying information. It covers:
- John Austin's seminal work distinguishing locutionary acts (literal meaning), illocutionary acts (intended function), and perlocutionary acts (effects on the listener).
- John Searle later systematized speech act theory and stated that utterances perform actions within social contexts.
- Speech acts are classified into declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives based on their function.
- Indirect speech acts use different grammatical structures than their intended functions to convey meaning.
This document summarizes Seiji Uchida's paper on immediate contexts and reported speech. Uchida argues that a dynamic view of context, where context is actively constructed based on relevance, better explains deictic phenomena and reported speech than a static view of context. He introduces the concepts of primary immediate context (PIC), anchored to the current speech situation, and secondary immediate context (SIC), providing referents for deictic items in reported speech that do not belong to the PIC. Direct quotation involves both PIC and SIC, while indirect quotation is based only on PIC. Uchida aims to show that reported speech in conversation and fiction can be explained by the same pragmatic principle of relevance, differing only
pragmatics speech act theory promises, felicity conditionsSajid Ali
This document provides an overview of speech act theory. It discusses that speech act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and how listeners determine intended meaning. It was first proposed by J.L. Austin and later expanded on by John Searle. The document then discusses key aspects of speech act theory, including locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. It also discusses felicity conditions and provides an example of the speech act of promising. Finally, it provides a brief overview of John Searle's contributions to the development of speech act theory.
Coherence and speech act (Istifadah Luthfata Sari - Universitas Wahidiyah)iluthfata
The document discusses coherence, speech acts, and the relationship between speech acts and society. It provides the following key points:
1. Coherence makes a text semantically meaningful by connecting sentences and ideas in a logical flow. Speech acts are utterances that perform an interactional function, like requests, commands, or apologies.
2. Speech act theory was developed by Austin and Searle, distinguishing locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. Searle identified five types of illocutionary points. Felicity conditions specify requirements for a speech act to be considered valid.
3. Speech acts are influenced by cultural dimensions like those in Hofstede's model. Almost
2. The Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutionary ActsThe loc.docxeugeniadean34240
This document discusses speech acts and their components. It describes speech acts as having three components: the locutionary act, which is the literal utterance; the illocutionary act, which is the intended meaning or force behind the utterance; and the perlocutionary act, which is the effect on or intended response from the listener. An example of requesting someone to close the door is used to illustrate how it can function on these three levels. The document also discusses challenges in interpreting speech acts, such as implicit vs explicit meaning, the influence of context and culture, and how misunderstandings can occur.
This document discusses pragmatics and pragmatic contrastive analysis. It defines pragmatics as the study of how context interacts with language to interpret discourse and text. Pragmatic contrastive analysis examines speech acts and conversational interaction between languages. Speech act theory, developed by John Austin, holds that utterances can be locutionary acts (the propositional meaning), illocutionary acts (the core meaning or force), and perlocutionary acts (the effect on the listener). Felicity conditions are the contextual factors that determine if a speech act is performed successfully.
This document provides a summary of John Austin's distinction between constative and performative utterances. It discusses that constative utterances describe a state of affairs and can be true or false, while performative utterances perform an action through their utterance rather than describing something. Some key points made include:
- Austin proposed performatives as a second category of utterances not subject to truth conditions.
- Performatives enact the action they describe, like marrying, betting, or naming.
- The distinction between constatives and performatives is unclear at times, as constatives can imply directives.
- Austin later differentiated between locutionary, illocutionary, and perloc
This document discusses speech act theory, which analyzes the functions of language use beyond just describing or conveying information. It covers:
- John Austin's seminal work distinguishing locutionary acts (literal meaning), illocutionary acts (intended function), and perlocutionary acts (effects on the listener).
- John Searle later systematized speech act theory and stated that utterances perform actions within social contexts.
- Speech acts are classified into declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives based on their function.
- Indirect speech acts use different grammatical structures than their intended functions to convey meaning.
This document summarizes Seiji Uchida's paper on immediate contexts and reported speech. Uchida argues that a dynamic view of context, where context is actively constructed based on relevance, better explains deictic phenomena and reported speech than a static view of context. He introduces the concepts of primary immediate context (PIC), anchored to the current speech situation, and secondary immediate context (SIC), providing referents for deictic items in reported speech that do not belong to the PIC. Direct quotation involves both PIC and SIC, while indirect quotation is based only on PIC. Uchida aims to show that reported speech in conversation and fiction can be explained by the same pragmatic principle of relevance, differing only
pragmatics speech act theory promises, felicity conditionsSajid Ali
This document provides an overview of speech act theory. It discusses that speech act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and how listeners determine intended meaning. It was first proposed by J.L. Austin and later expanded on by John Searle. The document then discusses key aspects of speech act theory, including locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. It also discusses felicity conditions and provides an example of the speech act of promising. Finally, it provides a brief overview of John Searle's contributions to the development of speech act theory.
Coherence and speech act (Istifadah Luthfata Sari - Universitas Wahidiyah)iluthfata
The document discusses coherence, speech acts, and the relationship between speech acts and society. It provides the following key points:
1. Coherence makes a text semantically meaningful by connecting sentences and ideas in a logical flow. Speech acts are utterances that perform an interactional function, like requests, commands, or apologies.
2. Speech act theory was developed by Austin and Searle, distinguishing locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. Searle identified five types of illocutionary points. Felicity conditions specify requirements for a speech act to be considered valid.
3. Speech acts are influenced by cultural dimensions like those in Hofstede's model. Almost
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics focuses on how context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics examines how language is used in situations, providing tools to understand meaning based on social context. It is concerned with what language can do rather than just what it says. Key aspects of pragmatics include speech acts, implicature, deixis, and presupposition.
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics focuses on how context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics examines how language is used in situations, providing tools to understand meaning based on social context. It is concerned with what language can do rather than just what it says. Key aspects of pragmatics include speech acts, implicature, deixis, and presupposition.
The document is a paper on speech acts that was written by Aseel Kazum Mahmood on January 22nd, 2014. It discusses speech acts from a sociolinguistic perspective and provides definitions and classifications of different types of speech acts, including constative utterances, ethical propositions, phatic utterances, and performative utterances. It also discusses felicity conditions for successful performatives and the concept of phatic communion in language.
This document discusses speech act theory and politeness in speech acts. It begins with an introduction to speech acts and J.L. Austin's speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts are explained, along with how to categorize different types of speech acts such as representatives, directives, commissives, etc. Felicity conditions for speech acts are presented. The concept of politeness and how it relates to maintaining face is discussed. Indirect speech acts are explained as a way to be polite. Sentence types and identifying them is also covered. In the end, references used in the document are listed.
This document discusses the body-mind problem and language from an interactionist perspective. It rejects the idea that the body-mind problem can be solved by distinguishing between physical and psychological languages, as these languages are not mutually translatable. It also rejects the idea that the problem arises from faulty language about minds, as there are mental states like beliefs and intentions that exist separately from behavior. The document outlines four main functions of language - expressive, stimulative, descriptive, and argumentative - and argues that any physicalist or causal theory of language can only account for the lower two functions, and not higher functions like describing and arguing that involve intentionality.
This document discusses speech acts and politeness in language. It defines speech acts as the actions performed through utterances, such as apologies, requests, promises, etc. It outlines J.L. Austin's speech act theory, including locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. It also discusses John Searle's classification of speech acts and the relationship between direct and indirect speech acts. The document then covers politeness in language, including the concepts of face, social distance and relative power between speakers, and Leech's maxims of politeness.
The document discusses pragmatics and speech act theory. It explains John Austin's theory that some utterances are not just statements but perform actions, like promises, orders, and apologies. The document also covers John Searle's classification of five types of speech acts and the idea of indirect speech acts containing two illocutionary forces.
American Sincerity Vs Japanese PolitenessRichard Hogue
This document discusses differences between American and Japanese concepts of sincerity in speech acts. It summarizes key debates in speech act theory between intention vs convention-based approaches. While Americans value sincerity as consistency between inner feelings and outward speech, Japanese value makoto as subordinating ego to fulfill social roles and expectations. Studies of compliments also highlight these cultural differences, as sincerity implies expressing true intentions without manipulation.
This document provides a literature review on verbal irony. It begins with an overview of discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and speech act theory as relevant theoretical frameworks. It then discusses figurative language and theories of verbal irony. The review examines previous studies on verbal irony and how it functions in communication. It focuses on speech act theory and how identifying infelicities can illustrate the figurative meaning of verbal irony. The review provides background on the key concepts and theories used to analyze verbal irony in communication and literature.
This document discusses the study of meaning and semantics. It begins by defining meaning as the relation between a sign and its referent. Meanings can be concrete, referring to real-world objects, or abstract, referring to ideas. Words can have denotative meanings, which encode their basic referent, as well as connotative meanings, which extend the word's usage. Figurative language like metaphor and metonymy also contribute to a word's meaning. Theories from philosophers like Austin and Searle are discussed regarding how language performs acts. Gestures are also found to reinforce meanings in utterances. Conceptual metaphors shape abstract thought, with metaphors rooted in embodied experiences.
The document examines how semantics, through sense and reference relations, provides some guidance for word meaning but is limited. Pragmatics, through exploring possible interpretations and understanding context and speaker intent, provides additional insight. The study aims to investigate how semantics and pragmatics are related and whether sense and reference alone are sufficient for word meaning or if pragmatic factors like illocutionary force also contribute. It hypothesizes that sense and reference require additional "force relations" from pragmatics to fully determine word meaning.
Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning and speaker meaning. It examines how context contributes to meaning. Some key concepts in pragmatics include deixis, which examines words like I, you, here, and now that depend on context; presupposition, which are assumptions in language; speech acts, which are actions performed through language like requests or promises; and politeness, which is using language to respect face or self-image. Pragmatics analyzes how people communicate beyond just the words themselves.
The document discusses the linguistic concept of deixis. It defines deixis as referring to elements in language, such as pronouns and demonstratives, whose meaning is dependent on the context of the utterance. These deictic elements encode aspects of the utterance situation, such as the identities of the speaker and addressee, their location and the time. The document outlines different types of deixis, including person, place, time, discourse and social deixis. It also discusses philosophical approaches to analyzing indexical expressions and how context is important for interpreting utterances containing deictic elements.
This document analyzes the types of presuppositions found in short stories by Silvester Goridus Sukur. The study identifies 219 total presuppositions across Sukur's stories. The dominant type is existential presupposition, making up 58.90% of the total, followed by lexical presuppositions at 21.56%. The analysis employs Yule's six types of presupposition and identifies triggers using Karttunen's theory. The results provide insight into the presuppositions most commonly used in Sukur's short stories.
>Introduction of Speech act theory Locutionary, Illocutionary, and perlocutionary speech act.
>The doctrine of Infelicitious condition.
> The influence of Grice, Strawson's objection, and Searle defense to Austin.
> IAP (Illocutionary act potential)
>The classification of illocutionary acts: Verdictive, Excercitives, Commissives, Behabitives, and Expositives.
>Indirect Speech act.
>Searle stated that an indirect speech act is one that is “perfomed by means of another”.
>Indirect act speech demostrated the relationship between the form and function of the particular utterance.
>Moreover, speech act theory and certain illocutionary forces in which results are likely to be proven in concerning the relation of acts to acts, acts to intentions, acts to context, and so forth. As it was urged by Merin that novel approach to formalizing speech act theory takes dialogue as the centeral notion with social acts categorically.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
This document discusses the role of context in interpreting discourse and language. It explains that discourse analysts must consider both the immediate linguistic context as well as the broader situation context to understand meaning. Pragmatic elements like reference, presupposition, implicature and inference can only be analyzed when considering the relationship between speakers, the utterance, and context. Interpretation of language is dependent on contextual factors like participants, time, place and shared background assumptions.
Speech Act Theory is an important area of study in Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis. Its focus lies in describing the features of language in use. It has provided us with a framework of principles and models to explain the contextualized use of language. The presentation discusses various concepts of Speech act theory like sense and force; constatives and performatives; locution, illocution and perlocution; kinds of speech acts and felicity conditions.
The document discusses semantics and semantic roles. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Semantic roles describe the possible relationships between predicates and their arguments. The document then applies semantic role analysis to examples from Kafka's Metamorphosis. It identifies examples that fit roles like agent, action, theme, and more. The analysis shows how semantic roles help convey the full meaning of sentences and contribute to the overall text.
This document provides an introduction to semantics and semantic roles. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language and discusses how words can have different meanings depending on context. It also defines semantic roles as the relationship between a predicate and its arguments. Some key semantic roles are identified such as agent, patient, and theme. Examples are provided to illustrate predicates with different valencies (number of arguments).
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete a request form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and select one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
The document provides instructions for creating an account, submitting a request, and receiving writing assistance on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a request form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarism. The instructions aim to guide users through obtaining writing help on the site.
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This document discusses semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics focuses on how context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics examines how language is used in situations, providing tools to understand meaning based on social context. It is concerned with what language can do rather than just what it says. Key aspects of pragmatics include speech acts, implicature, deixis, and presupposition.
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics focuses on how context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics examines how language is used in situations, providing tools to understand meaning based on social context. It is concerned with what language can do rather than just what it says. Key aspects of pragmatics include speech acts, implicature, deixis, and presupposition.
The document is a paper on speech acts that was written by Aseel Kazum Mahmood on January 22nd, 2014. It discusses speech acts from a sociolinguistic perspective and provides definitions and classifications of different types of speech acts, including constative utterances, ethical propositions, phatic utterances, and performative utterances. It also discusses felicity conditions for successful performatives and the concept of phatic communion in language.
This document discusses speech act theory and politeness in speech acts. It begins with an introduction to speech acts and J.L. Austin's speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts are explained, along with how to categorize different types of speech acts such as representatives, directives, commissives, etc. Felicity conditions for speech acts are presented. The concept of politeness and how it relates to maintaining face is discussed. Indirect speech acts are explained as a way to be polite. Sentence types and identifying them is also covered. In the end, references used in the document are listed.
This document discusses the body-mind problem and language from an interactionist perspective. It rejects the idea that the body-mind problem can be solved by distinguishing between physical and psychological languages, as these languages are not mutually translatable. It also rejects the idea that the problem arises from faulty language about minds, as there are mental states like beliefs and intentions that exist separately from behavior. The document outlines four main functions of language - expressive, stimulative, descriptive, and argumentative - and argues that any physicalist or causal theory of language can only account for the lower two functions, and not higher functions like describing and arguing that involve intentionality.
This document discusses speech acts and politeness in language. It defines speech acts as the actions performed through utterances, such as apologies, requests, promises, etc. It outlines J.L. Austin's speech act theory, including locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. It also discusses John Searle's classification of speech acts and the relationship between direct and indirect speech acts. The document then covers politeness in language, including the concepts of face, social distance and relative power between speakers, and Leech's maxims of politeness.
The document discusses pragmatics and speech act theory. It explains John Austin's theory that some utterances are not just statements but perform actions, like promises, orders, and apologies. The document also covers John Searle's classification of five types of speech acts and the idea of indirect speech acts containing two illocutionary forces.
American Sincerity Vs Japanese PolitenessRichard Hogue
This document discusses differences between American and Japanese concepts of sincerity in speech acts. It summarizes key debates in speech act theory between intention vs convention-based approaches. While Americans value sincerity as consistency between inner feelings and outward speech, Japanese value makoto as subordinating ego to fulfill social roles and expectations. Studies of compliments also highlight these cultural differences, as sincerity implies expressing true intentions without manipulation.
This document provides a literature review on verbal irony. It begins with an overview of discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and speech act theory as relevant theoretical frameworks. It then discusses figurative language and theories of verbal irony. The review examines previous studies on verbal irony and how it functions in communication. It focuses on speech act theory and how identifying infelicities can illustrate the figurative meaning of verbal irony. The review provides background on the key concepts and theories used to analyze verbal irony in communication and literature.
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The document examines how semantics, through sense and reference relations, provides some guidance for word meaning but is limited. Pragmatics, through exploring possible interpretations and understanding context and speaker intent, provides additional insight. The study aims to investigate how semantics and pragmatics are related and whether sense and reference alone are sufficient for word meaning or if pragmatic factors like illocutionary force also contribute. It hypothesizes that sense and reference require additional "force relations" from pragmatics to fully determine word meaning.
Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning and speaker meaning. It examines how context contributes to meaning. Some key concepts in pragmatics include deixis, which examines words like I, you, here, and now that depend on context; presupposition, which are assumptions in language; speech acts, which are actions performed through language like requests or promises; and politeness, which is using language to respect face or self-image. Pragmatics analyzes how people communicate beyond just the words themselves.
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>Introduction of Speech act theory Locutionary, Illocutionary, and perlocutionary speech act.
>The doctrine of Infelicitious condition.
> The influence of Grice, Strawson's objection, and Searle defense to Austin.
> IAP (Illocutionary act potential)
>The classification of illocutionary acts: Verdictive, Excercitives, Commissives, Behabitives, and Expositives.
>Indirect Speech act.
>Searle stated that an indirect speech act is one that is “perfomed by means of another”.
>Indirect act speech demostrated the relationship between the form and function of the particular utterance.
>Moreover, speech act theory and certain illocutionary forces in which results are likely to be proven in concerning the relation of acts to acts, acts to intentions, acts to context, and so forth. As it was urged by Merin that novel approach to formalizing speech act theory takes dialogue as the centeral notion with social acts categorically.
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This document discusses the role of context in interpreting discourse and language. It explains that discourse analysts must consider both the immediate linguistic context as well as the broader situation context to understand meaning. Pragmatic elements like reference, presupposition, implicature and inference can only be analyzed when considering the relationship between speakers, the utterance, and context. Interpretation of language is dependent on contextual factors like participants, time, place and shared background assumptions.
Speech Act Theory is an important area of study in Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis. Its focus lies in describing the features of language in use. It has provided us with a framework of principles and models to explain the contextualized use of language. The presentation discusses various concepts of Speech act theory like sense and force; constatives and performatives; locution, illocution and perlocution; kinds of speech acts and felicity conditions.
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This document provides an introduction to semantics and semantic roles. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language and discusses how words can have different meanings depending on context. It also defines semantic roles as the relationship between a predicate and its arguments. Some key semantic roles are identified such as agent, patient, and theme. Examples are provided to illustrate predicates with different valencies (number of arguments).
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Austin S Speech Act Theory And The Speech Situation
1. Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
Etsuko Oishi
Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006, pp. 1-14
ISSN 1970-0164
link: http://www.univ.trieste.it/~eserfilo/art106/oishi106.pdf
2. AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY AND THE SPEECH SITUATION
Etsuko Oishi
The talk starts with a question, why do we discuss Austin now? While answer-
ing the question, I will (I) present an interpretation of Austin’s speech act theory,
(II) discuss speech act theory after Austin, and (III) extend Austin’s speech act
theory by developing the concept of the speech situation. And in the following
section, three aspects of the speech situation, that is, (I) conventionality, (II)
actuality, and (II) intentionality, will be explained. Then a short conclusion fol-
lows.
1. Why do we discuss Austin now?
Half a century ago, John Austin gave a series of lectures, the William James
Lectures at Harvard, which were published posthumously as a book entitled
How to Do Things with Words. Austin presented a new picture of analysing
meaning; meaning is described in a relation among linguistic conventions corre-
lated with words/sentences, the situation where the speaker actually says some-
thing to the hearer, and associated intentions of the speaker. The idea that
meaning exists among these relations is depicted successfully by the concept of
acts: in uttering a sentence, that is, in utilizing linguistic conventions, the
speaker with an associated intention performs a linguistic act to the hearer.
Austin’s analysis of meaning is unique in the sense that meaning is not ex-
plained through some forms of reduction. In reductive theories of meaning,
complexities of meaning expressed by a sentence are reduced by a single crite-
rion to something else, and this is claimed to be the process of explaining the
meaning of the sentence. We can find this reductive «explanation» of meaning
typically in Russell: using a logical/mathematical model, Russell reduces the
meaning of a sentence to a fact to which the sentence corresponds. The strictest
reductionists are logical positivists. According to Warnock (1969), by «verifica-
tion principles» logical positivists reduced complexities of sentence meaning to
something «verifiable», and condemned an unverifiable sentence as, strictly
speaking, nonsense. Tarski also took a reductive approach and defined the mean-
ing of a sentence in terms of a state of affairs to which the sentence corresponds.
Modern truth-conditional semanticists adopt the Russellian idea of explaining
Esercizi Filosofici, 1, 2006, pp. 1-14. ISSN 1970-0164
3. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
the meaning of a sentence and the Russellian/Tarskian idea of correlating a sen-
tence, as its meaning, with a fact or state of affairs. Dowty, Wall, and Peters
(1985) say, to explain the meaning of a sentence is «to specify its truth condi-
tions, i.e., to give necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of that sen-
tence».
Austin, on the other hand, tried to describe «the total speech act in the total
speech situation» and warned against oversimplifying complexities of meaning,
in particular, by reducing meaning to descriptive meaning:
It has come to be seen that many specially perplexing words embedded in
apparently descriptive statements do not serve to indicate some specially odd
additional feature in the reality reported, but to indicate (not to report) the
circumstances in which the statement is made or reservations to which it is
subject or the way in which it is to be taken and the like. To overlook these
possibilities in the way once common is called the «descriptive» fallacy.
(Austin 1962: 3) [italics added]
By the concept of speech acts and the felicity conditions for performing them,
Austin showed that to utter a performative sentence is to be evaluated in terms
of, what we might call, conventionality, actuality, and intentionality of uttering
the sentence. Uttering a performative sentence is to be described in terms of (I)
associated conventions which are valid (without which the purported act is
disallowed; a violation of the felicity conditions (A)), (II) the speaker’s actual,
accurate utterance of the sentence to the hearer, which induces an associated
response from the hearer (without which the purported act is vitiated; a violation
of the felicity conditions (B)), and (III) an associated intention of the speaker
(without which the purported act is abused; a violation of the felicity conditions
(Γ)).
Through a description of the success/failure of the speech act purported,
which is explained as a violation/observation of the felicity conditions, Austin
formulated a method to describe a sentence in terms of the speech situation
where it is uttered: by means of associated linguistic conventions, the speaker,
with an associated intention, actually performs an act to the hearer, which
induces a certain response from the hearer. As we will develop later, Austin’s
idea can be interpreted in the following way: by uttering a performative
sentence, the speaker indicates a certain speech situation where (I) a certain
convention exists, as shown by the felicity condition (A.1), (II) there are certain
persons and circumstances, as shown by the felicity condition (A.2), (III) the
speaker performs the act in a certain way, as shown by the felicity condition
(B.1), (IV) the hearer reacts to it in a certain way, as shown by the felicity condi-
tion (B.2), (V) the speaker has certain thoughts, feelings, or intentions, as shown
by the felicity condition (Γ.1), and (VI) the speaker is supposed to execute a
certain task in the future, as shown by the felicity condition (Γ.2). In this frame-
2
4. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
work, the success of the purported speech act is explained as an identification of
the present speech situation with the speech situation indicated by the
performative sentence. The failure of the purported speech act is, on the other
hand, explained as a gap between the present speech situation and the speech
situation indicated. We will elaborate on this later.
Austin then delineates the concept of performativity. He shows that
performativity does not conflict with statements as the initial distinction
between performatives and constatives suggests. In its extended sense,
performativity is interpreted as a quintessential feature of communication which
is expressed with numerous verbs. So even uttering a sentence of «I state …»
can be infelicitous in six different ways in the same manner as uttering a sen-
tence with a performative verb. For example, we can imagine a language whose
lexicon lacks a verb with a sense of «to state» in English, although it has verbs
with a sense of «to make a sound», «to utter», or «to say». The speaker of the
language cannot perform the same act that the English speaker would perform in
uttering the sentence «I state …», therefore violating the felicity condition
(A.1), although it is quite likely that she can perform similar acts or achieve
similar effects by uttering the sentence with alternative verbs. The utterance of
«I state that he is sad» or «I state that such-and-such happened in the year 1651»
is infelicitous because you cannot state something in absentia, so to speak; in
this case, another person’s feelings or an event that took place in 1651, hence a
violation of the felicity condition (A.2). I cannot state something if I do not utter
the sentence correctly. Imagine that, instead of saying «I state I saw Sam and
Ellie», I, as a slip of the tongue, utter something which sounds more like «I state
I saw salmonella»: I did not state «I saw Sam and Ellie», as intended, therefore
violating of the felicity condition (B.1). I cannot state such-and-such if the
hearer is not listening to me, or thinks that I am joking, hence a violation of the
felicity condition (B.2). Also if I state such-and-such without believing it is the
case, the utterance is infelicitous, hence a violation of the felicity condition
(Γ.1). Similarly, if I state such-and-such, and later I refuse to make the same
statement under the same circumstances, my earlier statement becomes rather
questionable, therefore in violation of the felicity condition (Γ.2). These exam-
ples demonstrate that even an utterance of the sentence of «I state …», which
would appear to be more directly related to making a statement rather than per-
forming an act, is evaluated in terms of the elements of the speech situation,
namely, conventionality, actuality, and intentionality, and, accordingly, is subject
to infelicities related to them.
In the latter part of the William James Lectures, Austin specifies
performativity, formerly introduced as an intuitive idea of «performing an act».
He introduces the concept of illocutionary acts, and carefully distinguishes them
from locutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. Locutionary acts include
phonetic acts, phatic acts, and rhetic acts. Phonetic acts are acts of pronouncing
3
5. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
sounds, phatic acts are acts of uttering words or sentences in accordance with
the phonological and syntactic rules of the language to which they belong, and
rhetic acts are acts of uttering a sentence with sense and more or less definite
reference. Perlocutionary acts are, on the other hand, acts attributed to the effect
of uttering a sentence. Austin says that in uttering a sentence the speaker per-
forms an illocutionary act of having a certain force, which is different from the
locutionary act of uttering the sentence, which is to have a meaning, and also
from the perlocutionary act performed by uttering the sentence, which is to
achieve certain effects. By these distinctions, Austin shows that, unlike locu-
tionary acts, illocutionary acts have a force, and, unlike perlocutionary acts,
illocutionary acts are valid and complete without being reduced to the effect of
it.
Austin classifies illocutionary acts into five types, i.e., verdictives, exer-
citives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives. Although it is often argued
that Austin’s classification is not complete and those coined categories are not
mutually exclusive, Austin’s classification is best seen as an attempt to give a
general picture of illocutionary acts: what types of illocutionary act one can
generally perform in uttering a sentence. One can exercise judgment
(Verdictive), exert influence or exercise power (Exercitive), assume obligation
or declare intention (Commissive), adopt attitude, or express feeling
(Behabitive), and clarify reasons, argument, or communication (Expositive).
The long list of illocutionary verbs in each class also illustrates how many
subtly differentiated illocutionary acts exist in a language like English. The fact
that Austin includes the same word in two different classes and he does not
regard it as a problem suggests that it is not an issue for Austin which class a
particular illocutionary verb/act actually belongs to. The importance of
introducing this classification of illocutionary acts is rather to explicate, as we
explained above, what type of illocutionary act one can generally perform by
uttering a sentence; and, with additional specifications, how much more
diversified illocutionary acts are than we are usually aware of. The purpose of
the classification of illocutionary acts, if interpreted in this manner, is
compatible with Austin’s beliefs as a major proponent of Ordinary Language
Philosophy, which is typically expressed in remarks such as the following:
our common stock of words embodies all the distinctions men have found
worth drawing, and the connexions they have found worth marking, in the
lifetimes of many generations: these surely are likely to be more numerous,
more sound, since they have stood up to the long test of the survival of the
fittest, and more subtle, at least in all ordinary and reasonably practical mat-
ters, than any that you or I are likely to think up in our arm-chairs of an
afternoon — the most favoured alternative method. (Austin 1961: 182)
When we approach Austin’s speech act theory from this angle, it highlights
4
6. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
some important issues addressed by Austin that still remain virtually untackled.
Generally speaking, the speech act theorists after Austin focus on explaining
illocutionary acts in a narrow sense. John Searle, a major proponent of the
speech act theory, inherits his ideas from Austin and elaborates on some of them
(Searle 1969), but develops the theory in his own fashion: the essence of it being
that to perform an illocutionary act is to express an illocutionary intention
(Searle 1979). Searle’s notion of the speech act theory is developed along this
line, and Searle (1983) and Searle and Vanderveken (1985) attempt to explain
illocutionary force in a formal model which is compatible with the formal analy-
sis of propositional contents. Schiffer (1972) describes illocutionary acts in
terms of the speaker’s intention to produce a certain response r in a certain
audience, and the value(s) of «r».
While each of these speech act theories has some merit, they are at odds with
Austin’s original theory. In giving explanation of illocutionary acts, the theorists
have wittingly or unwittingly reduced them to something else, specifically,
intentions, and they explain how one type of illocutionary act differs from
another in terms of intentionality. This is, ironically, exactly what Austin
criticised. With the concept of performatives, Austin demonstrated that meaning
of a sentence cannot be fully explained by one criterion, i.e., the proposi-
tional/descriptive content it expresses. Austin also emphasised the importance of
describing the total speech act in the total speech situation in which the language
users employ the language: the speaker utters a sentence and performs a speech
act to the hearer. While doing so, Austin proposed (I) the felicity conditions,
which define the elements in the performance of illocutionary acts, (II) the
distinction between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts, which
specifies the sense of illocutionary acts performed in terms of other acts per-
formed in communication, and (III) the classification of illocutionary acts, which
gives general ideas of what acts are performed and in terms of what they are
specified. In spite of the possibilities Austin suggested, these speech act theorists
persistently concentrate on explaining an illocutionary act in terms of an inten-
tion. From Austin’s point of view, it is debatable whether reducing meaning,
expressed by uttering a sentence, to the intention is any better than reducing it to
a propositional/descriptive content which the sentence expresses.
The purpose of the present talk is to construct a theoretical framework in
which to develop Austin’s original, unadulterated, speech act theory. We begin
with the hypothesis. Speech act theorists after Austin failed to develop the
speech situation concept, and they described illocutionary acts in isolation,
thereby necessitating an explanation of illocutionary acts in terms of something
else, or reducing them to something else, such as intentions or attitudes. How-
ever, we propose that the most important contribution by Austin was his
development of the idea of the speech situation clarified by identification of illo-
cutionary acts. As the name suggests, the speech situation is a situation which is,
5
7. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
in one sense, a situation just like other situations which are in a particular spatio-
temporal location, but, in another sense, psychological space animated by
linguistic communication and specified by linguistic devices: it exists only be-
cause I speak to you, and it doesn’t exist where there is no communication. This
suggests that to utter a sentence as a piece of communication, i.e., to perform a
speech act in a general sense, is to indicate the speech situation where the sen-
tence is uttered, as well as it expresses what the sentence is made to express, i.e.,
a propositional/descriptive content. Austin’s concept of illocutionary acts sheds
light on the speech situation, and that it is indicated not only as a general speech
situation where the speaker speaks to the hearer, but also as a more specified
speech situation which varies in conventions activated, actual performances and
reactions executed, and intentions expressed. Austin’s initial concept of
performatives in contrast to that of constatives emphasises this specification of
the speech situation: to utter a sentence such as «I name this ship the Queen
Elizabeth» and «I bet six pence it will rain tomorrow» is to indicate the speech
situation, and it does not have a separate descriptive content. To describe this
aspect of communication, we have to first clarify the concept of the speech
situation itself, and then explain illocutionary acts in relation to it. We explain
performing an illocutionary act as follows: in uttering a sentence, the speaker
indicates a certain speech situation as the present speech situation. This, of
course, needs explanation.
Just like signs in general, linguistic signs are to express something other than
themselves. The word «apple», as a linguistic sign, does not mean the sound
[æpl] or a person or a thing associated with uttering this sound: it simply means
what it is made to mean, i.e., a particular kind of fruit. Some words such as
demonstratives are, on the other hand, self-reflexive: when an actual token of a
word is uttered, it indicates a person, thing, place, or time which is associated
with uttering this token. For example, when the word «I» is uttered, it indicates
the person who utters this token, and when the word «now» is uttered, it
indicates the time of uttering this token. If language is equipped with this
function, it is not difficult to imagine that this function is extended to the whole
utterance. Just like uttering the word «I» indicates the person who utters this
token, uttering a sentence such as «I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth»
indicates the present speech situation where this utterance is uttered. Further-
more, just like the hearer/addressee is indicated by either a T-form or a V-form
of the second person pronoun, in which the social relation between the
speaker/addresser and the hearer/addressee is implied, the utterance of «I name
this ship the Queen Elizabeth» indicates, as the present speech situation, a
speech situation of naming, which is linguistically differentiated from other
situations. To explain this we say: in uttering a sentence, the speaker indicates a
certain speech situation as the present speech situation.
Austin’s felicity conditions define the elements which structure the speech
6
8. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
situation, in terms of which a purported act succeeds/fails. We have suggested
describing these aspects of the speech situation as the aspect of conventionality,
more explicitly, certain conventions activated; the aspect of actuality, more
explicitly, certain performances and responses executed; and the aspect of
intentionality, more explicitly, certain intentions expressed. These aspects
correspond respectively to Austin’s felicity conditions of (A), (B), and (Γ).
2. Conventionality, actuality, and intentionality of the speech situation
Now we explain conventionality, actuality, and intentionality of the speech
situation.
Austin’s felicity conditions are as follows:
(A.1) There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a certain
conventional effect, that procedure to include the uttering of certain words
by certain persons in certain circumstances, and further,
(A.2) the particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be
appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure invoked.
(B.1) The procedure must be executed by all participants both correctly and
(B.2) completely.
(Γ.1) Where, as often, the procedure is designed for use by persons having
certain thoughts or feelings, or for the inauguration of certain consequential
conduct on the part of any participant, then a person participating in and so
invoking the procedure must in fact have those thoughts or feelings, and the
participants must intend so to conduct themselves, and further
(Γ.2) must actually so conduct themselves subsequently. (Austin 1962: 14-
15)
Violations of the conditions in (A.1) and (A.2) are described as
«misinvocations», in which the purported act is disallowed (Austin 1962:18).
This, in turn, indicates the speech situation in which the purported act would
be allowed.
The felicity condition in (A.1) reveals an aspect of the speech situation in
which the speaker and the hearer share linguistic conventions according to
which to utter certain words in certain circumstances by certain persons is
counted as performing a certain speech act, which has a certain conventional
effect. So the utterance in example (1) indicates a speech situation in which the
speaker and the hearer share a Muslim convention of divorce: to utter the sen-
tence in (1) is counted as performing an act of divorce and, as a conventional
result, divorce occurs.
(1) I divorce you. I divorce you. I divorce you.
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9. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
Similarly the utterance of the sentence in example (2) indicates a speech situa-
tion in which the speaker and the hearer share the linguistic convention of
performing an act of reprimand: a certain action or the failure to take a certain
action is subject to criticism, and the responsible person is to be blamed
formally and publicly for the neglect of her official duties (unlike the act of
«telling someone off» or scolding), by a person in that official capacity, with
conventional consequences (unlike the act of blame, criticism, or reproach).
(2) I reprimand you for your negligence.
The felicity condition in (A.2) reveals another aspect of the speech situation, in
which particular persons and particular circumstances exist. So the utterance in
(3) indicates a speech situation in which the speaker is a Christian priest and the
hearer is an infant. They are in religious circumstances, such as in a Christian
church, and in the presence of the infant’s parents.
(3) I baptize thee in the name of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Similarly the utterance in example (4) indicates a speech situation in which the
speaker and the hearer have a formal, hierarchical relationship to one another,
by which the speaker can charge the hearer to execute a certain action (unlike
the act of asking or begging), and does so for his own interest rather than for the
hearer’s (unlike the act of allowing or authorizing), and disobedience to the
command may have severe consequences.
(4) I order you to release the prisoners.
These scenarios establish that the speech situation can be specified linguistically.
By specifying the present act as divorce, reprimand, baptize, and order, the
speaker indicates, as the present speech situation, a speech situation where
associated conventions are activated, and persons and circumstances specified
by those conventions are present. In other words, by specifying what the speaker
is currently doing in uttering what he utters, the speaker specifies the speech
situation which currently exists between him and the hearer. Those specifica-
tions are dependent upon the language. What is regarded as an act and how that
act is specified in terms of related acts are largely determined by the language
that the speaker uses. We describe this aspect of the speech situation as
conventionality of the speech situation.
A violation of the second type of condition in (B.1) and (B.2) is described as
«misexecutions», in which a purported act is vitiated (Austin 1962:18). This, in
turn, depicts a speech situation in which a purported act would be executed in a
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10. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
very specific manner.
The felicity condition in (B.1) describes an aspect of the present speech
situation in which the present speaker actually utters words in a specific manner
to the present hearer. That is, in uttering a sentence, the speaker presents himself
as the performer of a certain act to the present hearer: in uttering a sentence, the
speaker conveys that I perform this act to you. In specifying the act as, say, an
act of reprimand, the speaker indicates the present speech situation in which the
speaker (I) performs this act of reprimand to the hearer (you).
The felicity condition in (B.2) exposes another aspect of the present speech
situation which is acknowledged and revitalised by the hearer. The present
speech situation indicated by the speaker as a certain situation can either be
acknowledged and revitalized by the hearer who behaves/responds in a given
manner, or be dismissed by the hearer who does not do so. For example, when
the speaker indicates the present speech situation as a situation of an order in
uttering the sentence in (4), i.e. the speaker indicates that I perform to you this
act of an order, the hearer may acknowledge and revitalise it by indicating that
he is following the order. The hearer may say something like the following:
(5) Yes, sir.
Alternatively, the hearer may simply release the prisoners. We explain this as-
pect of the speech situation as actuality, in which actual performance and
response are executed.
Austin’s felicity conditions in (A) and (B) allude to two different ways in
which speech acts fail. They fail because the conventional procedures for
performing acts do not exist or those procedures are such that they cannot be
applied to particular cases. They also fail because actual performances do not
correspond to conventional procedures: the speaker simply makes a mistake and
produces a wrong sound, produces an inaudible sound, misunderstands conven-
tional procedures for the performance of a specific act, or the hearer does not
acknowledge the purported act. These infelicitous cases, in turn, expose
felicitous cases where actual performances correspond to conventional proce-
dures, i.e., a purported act is the act actually performed by the present speaker:
an indicated speech situation is the present speech situation. This is the point at
which abstract convention coincides with physical performance. In one sense,
this is the point at which a convention is actualized as a part of the reality with
its substance, i.e., an actual illocutionary act; and, in another sense, it is the
point at which an action, which is in itself accidental and pointless, is specified
by the language as a system of value.
Let us move on to discuss Austin’s felicity conditions in (Γ.1) and (Γ.2).
A violation of these conditions is described as an «abuse», in which the
professed act is hollow (Austin 1962: 18). Austin distinguishes these conditions
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11. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
from the former conditions: (A.1) to (B.1). While a violation of the felicity
conditions from (A.1) to (B.1) results in non-performance, that is to say, a pur-
ported act is not performed, a violation of the felicity conditions in (Γ.1) and
(Γ.2) does not result in non-performance. Although it is a case of abuse, a
purported act is performed nonetheless. Austin says:
The first big distinction is between all the four rules A and B taken together,
as opposed to the two rules Γ (hence the use of Roman as opposed to Greek
letters). If we offend against any of the former rules (A’s or B’s)—that is if
we, say, utter the formula incorrectly, or if, say, we are not in a position to do
the act because we are, say, married already, or it is the purser and not the
captain who is conducting the ceremony, then the act in question, e.g. marry-
ing, is not successfully performed at all, does not come off, is not achieved.
Whereas in the two Γ cases the act is achieved, although to achieve it in such
circumstances, as when we are, say, insincere, is an abuse of procedure.
Thus, when I say ‘I promise’ and have no intention of keeping it, I have
promised but .... (Austin 1962: 15-16)
The cases of abuse which are clarified by felicity conditions in (Γ.1) and (Γ.2),
hence, reveal a speech situation where the professed act is sincere and substan-
tial: the speaker means what she says and intends to fulfill her future
responsibility. For example, in uttering the sentence:
(6) I welcome you,
the speaker demonstrates herself as a sincere performer of this act of welcome:
the speaker is genuinely delighted to have the hearer in her company, such as a
place or an organization. In other words, the speaker indicates the present
speech situation as a situation where the act of welcome is sincere and substan-
tial. Specifically, the speaker means what she says, and she approves of and is
delighted by the hearer’s presence. This is the aspect of intentionality of the
present speech situation, which the felicity condition in (Γ.1) clarifies.
Another aspect of intentionality, which the felicity condition (Γ.2) clarifies,
concerns a future responsibility. That is, the present speech situation is indicated
not only as a situation where a purported act is sincere and substantial, but also
as a situation where associated future commitment is expressed. For example, in
uttering the sentence:
(7) I promise to support you,
the speaker indicates the present speech situation as a situation which does not
exist only at the time of utterance but which will last for a longer period of time,
wherein the speaker’s support for the hearer is promised. That is, the felicity
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12. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
conditions in (Γ.1) and (Γ.2) clarify how the present speech situation is
substantiated by the speaker’s associated intention and future responsibility
expressed.
The structure of illocutionary acts which we have described would appear to
be a source of force. Conventions do not make a move in communication. Acci-
dental/pointless actions do not have value in themselves. And intentions are
vague in nature. However, an actual act which is performed on the basis of
linguistic conventions, and strengthened by associated intentions expressed by
the speaker has a force in communication.
Such an act has (I) a linguistic value, e.g. an act of divorce or welcome; (II) a
concrete artefact with substance; and (III) it is an expression of the speaker’s
intention. In other words, the performance of an illocutionary act makes the
present speech situation a certain speech situation specified by the convention,
and strengthened by the present speaker’s expressed intention.
As we suggested earlier, Austin proposes an alternative model of meaning. It
is not merely to explain conventional relations between sentences and states of
affairs, or between sentences and intentions. Rather, to explain meaning, Austin
implicates linguistic artefacts, i.e., illocutionary acts, which are created by
linguistic conventions, actual performance, and the speaker’s expressed inten-
tions. We reanalyse this explanation, and propose to treat the artefacts as acts
that indicate the speech situation: to perform illocutionary acts is to indicate, as
the present speech situation, a certain situation, which is substantiated by an
associated intention expressed. The aforementioned concepts of conventionality,
actuality, and intentionality describe these aspects of the speech situation.
This represents a unitary view of meaning. Meaning is explained by an
examination of linguistic conventions (contained in a language), actual
performance (language use), and associated intentions. In linguistics the general
tendency is to describe one aspect of meaning as if it were the essence of
meaning. In semantics, linguistic conventions are generally explained by
correlating sentences with states of affairs. In pragmatics, actual performances
are studied to describe a certain type or aspect of communication. Intentionality
is described, semantically, in terms of the relation between sentences and associ-
ated intentions. Or it is described, pragmatically, as actual performances in
which the speaker expresses his intentions. As a result, semantics theories tend
to offer the linguistic means that are available to the users without explaining
how those means are used to make communication possible. Whereas pragmatic
theories tend to explain what is happening in communication without explaining
the available linguistic means. Austin’s theory is promising because it unites all
three aspects of meaning, namely linguistic conventions, language use, and
intentionality. In this sense, it is a credible general theory of communication.
Another uniqueness of Austin’s theory lies in the fact that meaning is ex-
plained in a non-tautological way. In correspondence theories of meaning, a
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13. Esercizi Filosofici 1, 2006 / Testi
sentence is correlated, as its meaning, with a state of affairs. However, the state
of affairs correlated with the sentence is not an actual state of affairs in the
world, but rather a state of affairs which is segmented by the sentence in
question. That is, to explain what a sentence expresses is to explain how the
sentence is different in meaning from other sentences. And, since the sentence
expresses what it expresses because of syntax and semantics of the language, to
explain meaning of the sentence is to explain syntax and semantics of the lan-
guage. Therefore, to explain meaning is not to explain what a sentence means in
communication nor what the speaker means in uttering a sentence. It explains
the language by positing another abstract level of the language.
This is what Tarski does by his theory of truth in his famous example:
(8) «Snow is white» is true if and only if snow is white,
where the phrase «Snow is white» on the left side of this equivalence in
question marks belongs to an object language and the one on the right without
quotation marks belongs to meta-language. The sentence of an object language
«Snow is white» is true if and only if «snow» designates snow and snow
satisfies the sentential function, «x is white». (Tarski 1944: 585) Furthermore,
Tarski allows more than one abstract level of the language. He says:
It should be noticed that these terms «object-language» and «meta-
language» have only a relative sense. If, for instance, we become interested
in the notion of truth applying to sentences, not of our original object-
language, but of its meta-language, the latter becomes automatically the
object-language of our discussion: and in order to define truth for this
language, we have to go to a new meta-language — so to speak, to a meta-
language of a higher level. In this way, we arrive at a whole hierarchy of
languages. (Tarski 1944: 597-598)
Then to explain meaning is to explain the semantic system of the language in
question by positing one or more abstract levels of the language, not to explain
what the speaker means in using the language. Austin’s speech act theory, how-
ever, theoretically distinguishes the language, the present speech situation, and
the intentions of the present speaker. As Austin’s felicity conditions in (A) show,
a purported speech act can be infelicitous because of the language, i.e. linguistic
conventions, irrespective of actual performances in the speech situation and the
intention of the present speaker. As the felicity conditions in (B) show, an actual
performance can be infelicitous in its own way irrespective of the linguistic
conventions and the present speaker’s intention. And, finally, as the felicity
conditions in (Γ) show, a speech act can be abused irrespective of the linguistic
conventions and the performance of the present speaker. So to describe linguis-
tic conventions, to describe an actual performance in the speech situation, and to
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14. E. Oishi / Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation
describe the speaker’s intention expressed are theoretically independent of one
another. For this reason, the success of the speech act is explained as the
coincidence of these three distinctive elements: a purported act becomes the act
performed, which is substantiated by an associated intention expressed. We
have proposed to explain performing an illocutionary act as follows: in uttering
a sentence, the speaker indicates, as the present speech situation, a certain
speech situation (specified by linguistic conventions), which is substantiated by
an associated intention of the present speaker. When there is no gap among
these, i.e. the present speech situation, a speech situation indicated, and the
intentions of the speaker expressed, the purported act is successful: the present
speech situation becomes an indicated speech situation, with the intention ex-
pressed. According to this theory, the language, that is linguistic conventions,
expresses things outside of the system of the language.
3. Conclusion
We have expanded on Austin’s speech act theory so that «the total speech situa-
tion in the total speech situation» can be better understood. Unlike other speech
act theorists who essentially describe how illocutionary acts differ from one an-
other in terms of intentionality, we have proposed an alternative scheme: to de-
scribe illocutionary acts in terms of different aspects of the speech situation.
After initially discussing the speech situation and its theoretical import, and
subsequently using Austin’s felicity conditions as a starting point, we illustrated
three aspects of the speech situation, conventionality, actuality, and intentional-
ity, according to which a purported act succeeds or fails. And next we explained
the performance of an illocutionary act as follows: by uttering a sentence, the
speaker indicates, as the present speech situation, a certain speech situation,
which is substantiated by an associated intention.
The purpose of the present paper is merely to provide a theoretical
framework, through an analysis of illocutionary acts, which gives a clearer and
more concise description of the speech situation on which communication is
based. To actually «enflesh» this framework, more thorough analyses of the
speech situation and both types of speech act are needed.
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