This document discusses potable water standards in India. It provides the guidelines and standards for various physical, chemical, bacteriological, and radiological parameters as set by the WHO and in India. Key parameters discussed include color, taste, odor, turbidity, total dissolved solids, pH, essential and toxic inorganic chemicals, organic compounds, and bacteria. The history of water treatment and various sources of contamination are also summarized. Standards aim to ensure drinking water is safe for human consumption and aesthetically acceptable.
Shaw AFB provides an annual water quality report to inform residents, workers, and guests about the quality of drinking water. The report covers the period from January to December 2011. Water sources are wells that draw from the Upper and Lower Black Creek Aquifers. Testing found levels of contaminants like chlorine, nitrate, fluoride, trichloroethylene, alpha particles, and radium below EPA standards. Special precautions for some contaminants are advised for vulnerable groups.
The physiological effects of nickel chloride hexahydrate on aquatic microbial biofilm were studied. Microbial biofilm was cultured on incubated sweet gum leaves then exposed to various concentrations of nickel chloride solution. Dissolved oxygen levels were measured before and after incubation. As nickel concentrations increased, biofilm respiration and dissolved oxygen consumption decreased, with the highest respiration at 0.20 mg/L nickel. The study provides insight into how heavy metals impact aquatic food webs.
The document reviews water quality data from a source over three years to design a water treatment plant. It analyzes parameters like pesticides, nitrogen, hardness, conductivity, metals, microorganisms, radioactivity, turbidity, color, and TOC. Based on the data, the source water is characterized as a surface water source in an agricultural area with some livestock. A risk assessment is then conducted to identify control measures and monitoring needs for the water safety plan. Finally, a treatment plant design is proposed to address parameters like coliform removal, cryptosporidium reduction, disinfection byproducts, and the removal of turbidity, manganese, aluminum, and pesticides.
Removal of Lead from Synthetic Lead Solution by using Orange peel as a low Co...IRJET Journal
This document examines the removal of lead from synthetic lead solutions using orange peel as a low-cost adsorbent. The study involves preparing column filters with different quantities of dried and crushed orange peel and passing synthetic wastewater with an initial lead concentration of 40 mg/L through the columns. Samples are collected from the column outlets at various time intervals and analyzed to determine final lead concentrations and percentage of lead removed from solution. The results show that increasing the quantity of orange peel and retention time in the columns increases the percentage of lead removed, with a maximum removal of 27.5% achieved using 50g of orange peel over 60 minutes.
Irrigation water recycling in the greenhouseSteven Newman
Presented at the 2013 Utah Green Conference sponsored by the Utah Nursery and Landscape Association, 28 January 2013.
The entire slide set was recorded with audio and you can view it at: http://youtu.be/GCd6P85dBmg
This document summarizes a study assessing disinfectants for controlling Phytophthora ramorum, a fungal pathogen threatening nursery plants. The study is a collaborative project between Colorado State University and USDA-APHIS, testing oxidant disinfectants on greenhouse supplies, soil, and infected plants using a fungal surrogate. The goals are to determine efficacy on supplies and equipment, decontamination of soil, and effects on plants. Common oxidants like chlorine and hydrogen peroxide are examined, and their oxidation potentials and impacts on pathogens are discussed.
AiChE National Meeting 2012 Pittsburgh Presentation Flow Continuousdominev
1) In-situ FTIR spectroscopy using a ReactIR flow cell allows for real-time monitoring and analysis of continuous chemical reactions without interrupting flow.
2) Case studies demonstrated its use in optimizing a continuous ozonolysis reaction for safer API production, achieving a 2.7kg yield in 4 days.
3) Rapid screening and optimization of a Doebner modification reaction was also demonstrated, identifying optimal conditions within hours using on-the-fly variation of temperature and residence time analyzed via the in-situ FTIR.
Shaw AFB provides an annual water quality report to inform residents, workers, and guests about the quality of drinking water. The report covers the period from January to December 2011. Water sources are wells that draw from the Upper and Lower Black Creek Aquifers. Testing found levels of contaminants like chlorine, nitrate, fluoride, trichloroethylene, alpha particles, and radium below EPA standards. Special precautions for some contaminants are advised for vulnerable groups.
The physiological effects of nickel chloride hexahydrate on aquatic microbial biofilm were studied. Microbial biofilm was cultured on incubated sweet gum leaves then exposed to various concentrations of nickel chloride solution. Dissolved oxygen levels were measured before and after incubation. As nickel concentrations increased, biofilm respiration and dissolved oxygen consumption decreased, with the highest respiration at 0.20 mg/L nickel. The study provides insight into how heavy metals impact aquatic food webs.
The document reviews water quality data from a source over three years to design a water treatment plant. It analyzes parameters like pesticides, nitrogen, hardness, conductivity, metals, microorganisms, radioactivity, turbidity, color, and TOC. Based on the data, the source water is characterized as a surface water source in an agricultural area with some livestock. A risk assessment is then conducted to identify control measures and monitoring needs for the water safety plan. Finally, a treatment plant design is proposed to address parameters like coliform removal, cryptosporidium reduction, disinfection byproducts, and the removal of turbidity, manganese, aluminum, and pesticides.
Removal of Lead from Synthetic Lead Solution by using Orange peel as a low Co...IRJET Journal
This document examines the removal of lead from synthetic lead solutions using orange peel as a low-cost adsorbent. The study involves preparing column filters with different quantities of dried and crushed orange peel and passing synthetic wastewater with an initial lead concentration of 40 mg/L through the columns. Samples are collected from the column outlets at various time intervals and analyzed to determine final lead concentrations and percentage of lead removed from solution. The results show that increasing the quantity of orange peel and retention time in the columns increases the percentage of lead removed, with a maximum removal of 27.5% achieved using 50g of orange peel over 60 minutes.
Irrigation water recycling in the greenhouseSteven Newman
Presented at the 2013 Utah Green Conference sponsored by the Utah Nursery and Landscape Association, 28 January 2013.
The entire slide set was recorded with audio and you can view it at: http://youtu.be/GCd6P85dBmg
This document summarizes a study assessing disinfectants for controlling Phytophthora ramorum, a fungal pathogen threatening nursery plants. The study is a collaborative project between Colorado State University and USDA-APHIS, testing oxidant disinfectants on greenhouse supplies, soil, and infected plants using a fungal surrogate. The goals are to determine efficacy on supplies and equipment, decontamination of soil, and effects on plants. Common oxidants like chlorine and hydrogen peroxide are examined, and their oxidation potentials and impacts on pathogens are discussed.
AiChE National Meeting 2012 Pittsburgh Presentation Flow Continuousdominev
1) In-situ FTIR spectroscopy using a ReactIR flow cell allows for real-time monitoring and analysis of continuous chemical reactions without interrupting flow.
2) Case studies demonstrated its use in optimizing a continuous ozonolysis reaction for safer API production, achieving a 2.7kg yield in 4 days.
3) Rapid screening and optimization of a Doebner modification reaction was also demonstrated, identifying optimal conditions within hours using on-the-fly variation of temperature and residence time analyzed via the in-situ FTIR.
This document provides an overview of chemical water quality assessment and sampling techniques. It discusses key concepts like the Clean Water Act's goal of maintaining chemical, physical and biological water integrity. Key chemical water quality parameters that can be sampled in the field are discussed, such as temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity and nutrients. The document also covers sampling locations, preservation methods, field safety, and calibration of sampling equipment.
At present the Company is engaged in the testing of Drugs, Pharmaceuticals, Ayurveda & Sidha Chemicals, Cosmetics, Food & Food products, Oil & Oil Cakes, Poultry Feed, Water, Waste Water, Air Pollution, Noise Monitoring, Building Materials and Material testing etc. Apart from this we are also in the business of Calibration in the field of Mass, Force and Pressure for industry as well as laboratories .We identify & provide solutions of trouble shooting in Quality Control of industries.
This document discusses water treatment processes for rivers and waste water. It covers pre-treatment of river water which includes chlorination, clarification, and filtration to produce good quality demineralized water. Clarification removes suspended solids through coagulation, flocculation, and settling. Proper pre-treatment is important to prevent ion exchange resins from fouling during demineralization. The document also discusses properties of water like turbidity, color, conductivity, pH, and alkalinity and how impurities like dissolved and suspended solids are removed.
Magnesium hydroxide and oxide nanoflakes were synthesized using citrus limon leaf extract. The synthesis involved adding the leaf extract to magnesium chloride solution, then adding sodium hydroxide to precipitate the nanoparticles. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed peaks corresponding to magnesium hydroxide and hydroxide groups, indicating the leaf extract stabilized the nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction analysis found an average crystallite size of 20 nm. Scanning electron microscopy images showed irregularly shaped magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles around 80 nm in size. A second study synthesized magnesium oxide nanoparticles using lepidium sativum seed extract via a similar procedure, with characterization also showing nanoparticles in the 30-120 nm range stabilized by functional groups from the plant materials
The document summarizes the treatment of textile industry effluents. It discusses that textile effluents contain large amounts of water along with unfixed dyes, heavy metals, detergents, surfactants, and other natural and inorganic chemicals. The treatment of these effluents is important to prevent water pollution. Textile effluent treatment involves primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary treatment includes screening, sedimentation, and neutralization. Secondary treatment consists of aerated lagoons, oxidation ditches, and activated sludge. Tertiary treatment utilizes advanced oxidation techniques, membrane technology, and electrochemical processes. Electrochemical oxidation is an emerging tertiary treatment technology but has high energy costs and
Out of the Shadows: Identifying Impurities in Cannabis ProductsMarkus Roggen
Highly concentrated cannabis products have seen rapid growth, as customers become more accustomed to cannabis consumption and actively seek out high-potency products. Cannabis concentrates come in various forms and product names, from Badder, Budder and Crumble to Distillate, Oil and Shatter. Those products can have THC concentrations are high as 95%, compared with less than 25% common in cannabis flower.
While the actual THC concentration can vary between 70 and 95%, what is common for all cannabis concentrates is that the total of identified compounds seldomly goes above 95% of product weight.
Delic Labs is a research venture that seeks to add fundamental scientific insight to the field of cannabis and mushroom production. In this regard, we set out to identify those compounds in the missing mass balance for cannabis concentrates. This presentation will show our latest advances in characterizing and quantifying impurities in cannabis concentrates. For example, we found reduced cannabinoid species in CBN products, THC isomers in distillates and oxidation products in CBD formulations.
The document outlines Indian drinking water quality standards that specify permissible limits of various chemical and microbiological parameters in drinking water. It provides desirable and permissible limits according to IS 10500 for parameters like pH, turbidity, iron, arsenic, lead, total coliform and E.coli. It also describes potential health risks of exceeding limits for each parameter such as gastrointestinal illnesses, neurological effects, and cancer. Sources of contamination and recommended treatment methods to reduce the parameters are mentioned.
Redox Mediated Decolorization and Detoxification of Direct Blue 80 by Partial...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Textile industries are releasing a large number of toxic synthetic dyes into waste waters. Hence, the removal of such compounds from environment prior to their final disposal is necessary. In the present study, potential use of ginger (Zingiber officinale) peroxidase in decolorization and detoxification of direct blue 80 has been investigated. It was found that only 0.166 U/ml of ginger peroxidase was sufficient for maximum decolorization of dye (25 mg/L). H2O2 was required in low concentration (0.3 mM) in the presence of 0.6 mM 1-hydroxybenzotriazole. Direct blue 80 was also successfully removed in stirred batch process. It was observed that ginger peroxidase was highly stable over a wide range of pH and temperatures. Km and Vmax of the enzyme for direct blue 80 was found to be 27.8 mg/L and 2.09 mg/L/min, respectively. In UV-visible spectral analysis a sharp decline in peak was observed for the treated direct blue 80 which substantiates the breakdown of chromophore group of dye. Genotoxicity assessment by comet assay and chromosomal aberration test confirmed that the direct blue 80 was successfully detoxified by ginger peroxidase. Other direct and acid dyes were also treated either as a single or a mixture of different dyes and it was observed that these dyes were also decolorized significantly under similar experimental conditions. Our study suggests that this enzyme-redox mediator system constitutes a cost effective model which can decolorize the industrial textile effluents and also can reduce the toxic load of environment.
Visible Light Assisted Degradation of Eosin Yellow using Heteroatom Functiona...IJERA Editor
10 ppm EY dye were successfully photodegraded using visible light active 0.75wt% Ba & 0.25wt% Zr codoped
TiO2 nanomaterial that were synthesized by Sol-gel method as nanomaterials under irradiation for 20
minutes and characterized by various advanced instrumental techniques. The X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopic
showed that the prepared nanomaterial were in the anatase phase with 2θ at 25.3º. UV-visible Diffuse
Reflectance Spectra analysis explained that the dopants found in the TiO2, imparts a significance absorption
shift towards visible region and their exisistance were confirmed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectral data.
Quantitatively the formation of hydroxyl radical by the nanomaterial in aqueous solution under visible
light irradiation was investigated by the photoluminiscent technique. Finally the effects of different parameters
in the photocatalytic degradation of EY were established in aqueous solution
Decolourisation of Nigrosine WS dye by Solar Photo-fentonAkash Tikhe
My master's dissertation thesis topic- Decolorization of Nigrosine WS dye by Homogeneous Solar Photo-Fenton Method along with Intro, Method, Result, conclusion and suggestions.
The document summarizes information about MIOX and its Mixed Oxidant Solution (MOS) technology. In 3 sentences: MIOX produces MOS through an electrolytic process that generates hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide from salt water. MOS is a more effective disinfectant than hypochlorite alone, able to destroy biofilms and reduce disinfection byproducts. MIOX has installed over 2,000 units across 30+ countries treating water, wastewater, pools and other applications.
IRJET- Biosorption and Optimization Studies on Congo Red Dye with Fanwort...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study on the biosorption of Congo Red dye using fanwort powder. The researchers characterized the fanwort powder and dye-loaded powder using FTIR, XRD, and SEM analysis. Equilibrium studies were conducted to determine the effects of contact time, biosorbent size, and pH on the biosorption process. The optimum conditions for biosorption were found to be a contact time of 40 minutes, biosorbent size of 53 μm, and pH of 5. Kinetic, isotherm, and thermodynamic studies were also included to understand the biosorption process. A Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the process parameters.
Boron is a chemical element commonly found in the environment in compounds called borates. It is difficult to remove boron from seawater using reverse osmosis (RO) due to its uncharged and nonpolar nature. Multiple configurations can be used to effectively remove boron including double-pass RO systems, single-pass RO combined with ion exchange resins, and multistage RO systems sometimes incorporating ion exchange or acidification steps. The specific configuration used depends on factors like feed water chemistry and the desired permeate quality.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
The document outlines Indian drinking water quality standards according to IS 10500:1991. It provides desirable and permissible limits for various water quality parameters like pH, turbidity, hardness, and heavy metals. It discusses potential health risks of consuming water with levels outside recommended limits for each parameter, including gastrointestinal illness and neurological effects. Sources of contamination and suggested treatment methods are also provided.
Two types of waste are generated from textile processing: process chemicals and fiber wastes. The nature of the waste depends on the type of textile facility, processes used, fibers, and chemicals. Textile effluent can include dispersible wastes mixed with other wastes in wastewater, hard-to-treat wastes that resist treatment and contain non-biodegradable or inorganic materials, and high-volume wastes like wash water, alkaline wastes, and warp sizes. Effluent can also contain hazardous or toxic wastes like metals, chlorinated solvents, and non-degradable surfactants. Common treatment processes include screening, sedimentation, equalization, neutralization, chemical
Closed joint-stock company ECAT is a Russian company established in 2004 in Perm, Russia that specializes in air cleaning systems using plasma, catalysis, and ozone technologies. The company serves clients in industries like chemical, mechanical engineering, oil and gas, food, agriculture, and medicine. ECAT has received recognition for developing innovative catalysts and nanotechnology, with 4 patents and over 10 scientific research projects. It provides solutions for air sterilization and treatment of pollutants like dioxins, VOCs, and ammonia. ECAT's systems can operate at temperatures up to 1040°C with high permeability and catalytic materials that are highly active at low concentrations without precious metals.
The document provides standards and specifications for the process design of plant waste water sewer systems for facilities like oil refineries, chemical plants, and terminals. It outlines different types of main sewer systems including storm water, oily water, non-oily water, chemical, and sanitary systems. It describes various system components and provides design considerations for flow rates, collection, sizing, and effluent characteristics. The document also discusses effluent sources in different plant areas and general requirements for releasing wastes. It includes several appendices with additional information.
This document discusses lessons learned from driven pile foundations used on five contracts for the Central Artery/Tunnel project in Boston. Driven piles supported structures like ramps, walls, and roadway slabs. Issues encountered included pile and soil heave during driving. Load tests showed piles had greater capacity than designed. At one site, preaugering and wick drains to mitigate movement proved ineffective. The information provides insights for engineers using driven pile foundations in soft soils.
This document provides an introduction and overview of pile foundations. It discusses the purpose and functions of pile foundations, including transmitting loads to solid ground and resisting vertical, lateral, and uplift loads. It then classifies piles in multiple ways, such as by load transmission characteristics (end bearing, friction, or a combination), material type (timber, concrete, steel, composite), and installation method (driven or bored). The document outlines each pile type and provides examples to illustrate differences. It aims to extract key points about pile foundations in a clear and student-friendly manner.
This document provides an overview of chemical water quality assessment and sampling techniques. It discusses key concepts like the Clean Water Act's goal of maintaining chemical, physical and biological water integrity. Key chemical water quality parameters that can be sampled in the field are discussed, such as temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity and nutrients. The document also covers sampling locations, preservation methods, field safety, and calibration of sampling equipment.
At present the Company is engaged in the testing of Drugs, Pharmaceuticals, Ayurveda & Sidha Chemicals, Cosmetics, Food & Food products, Oil & Oil Cakes, Poultry Feed, Water, Waste Water, Air Pollution, Noise Monitoring, Building Materials and Material testing etc. Apart from this we are also in the business of Calibration in the field of Mass, Force and Pressure for industry as well as laboratories .We identify & provide solutions of trouble shooting in Quality Control of industries.
This document discusses water treatment processes for rivers and waste water. It covers pre-treatment of river water which includes chlorination, clarification, and filtration to produce good quality demineralized water. Clarification removes suspended solids through coagulation, flocculation, and settling. Proper pre-treatment is important to prevent ion exchange resins from fouling during demineralization. The document also discusses properties of water like turbidity, color, conductivity, pH, and alkalinity and how impurities like dissolved and suspended solids are removed.
Magnesium hydroxide and oxide nanoflakes were synthesized using citrus limon leaf extract. The synthesis involved adding the leaf extract to magnesium chloride solution, then adding sodium hydroxide to precipitate the nanoparticles. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed peaks corresponding to magnesium hydroxide and hydroxide groups, indicating the leaf extract stabilized the nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction analysis found an average crystallite size of 20 nm. Scanning electron microscopy images showed irregularly shaped magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles around 80 nm in size. A second study synthesized magnesium oxide nanoparticles using lepidium sativum seed extract via a similar procedure, with characterization also showing nanoparticles in the 30-120 nm range stabilized by functional groups from the plant materials
The document summarizes the treatment of textile industry effluents. It discusses that textile effluents contain large amounts of water along with unfixed dyes, heavy metals, detergents, surfactants, and other natural and inorganic chemicals. The treatment of these effluents is important to prevent water pollution. Textile effluent treatment involves primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary treatment includes screening, sedimentation, and neutralization. Secondary treatment consists of aerated lagoons, oxidation ditches, and activated sludge. Tertiary treatment utilizes advanced oxidation techniques, membrane technology, and electrochemical processes. Electrochemical oxidation is an emerging tertiary treatment technology but has high energy costs and
Out of the Shadows: Identifying Impurities in Cannabis ProductsMarkus Roggen
Highly concentrated cannabis products have seen rapid growth, as customers become more accustomed to cannabis consumption and actively seek out high-potency products. Cannabis concentrates come in various forms and product names, from Badder, Budder and Crumble to Distillate, Oil and Shatter. Those products can have THC concentrations are high as 95%, compared with less than 25% common in cannabis flower.
While the actual THC concentration can vary between 70 and 95%, what is common for all cannabis concentrates is that the total of identified compounds seldomly goes above 95% of product weight.
Delic Labs is a research venture that seeks to add fundamental scientific insight to the field of cannabis and mushroom production. In this regard, we set out to identify those compounds in the missing mass balance for cannabis concentrates. This presentation will show our latest advances in characterizing and quantifying impurities in cannabis concentrates. For example, we found reduced cannabinoid species in CBN products, THC isomers in distillates and oxidation products in CBD formulations.
The document outlines Indian drinking water quality standards that specify permissible limits of various chemical and microbiological parameters in drinking water. It provides desirable and permissible limits according to IS 10500 for parameters like pH, turbidity, iron, arsenic, lead, total coliform and E.coli. It also describes potential health risks of exceeding limits for each parameter such as gastrointestinal illnesses, neurological effects, and cancer. Sources of contamination and recommended treatment methods to reduce the parameters are mentioned.
Redox Mediated Decolorization and Detoxification of Direct Blue 80 by Partial...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Textile industries are releasing a large number of toxic synthetic dyes into waste waters. Hence, the removal of such compounds from environment prior to their final disposal is necessary. In the present study, potential use of ginger (Zingiber officinale) peroxidase in decolorization and detoxification of direct blue 80 has been investigated. It was found that only 0.166 U/ml of ginger peroxidase was sufficient for maximum decolorization of dye (25 mg/L). H2O2 was required in low concentration (0.3 mM) in the presence of 0.6 mM 1-hydroxybenzotriazole. Direct blue 80 was also successfully removed in stirred batch process. It was observed that ginger peroxidase was highly stable over a wide range of pH and temperatures. Km and Vmax of the enzyme for direct blue 80 was found to be 27.8 mg/L and 2.09 mg/L/min, respectively. In UV-visible spectral analysis a sharp decline in peak was observed for the treated direct blue 80 which substantiates the breakdown of chromophore group of dye. Genotoxicity assessment by comet assay and chromosomal aberration test confirmed that the direct blue 80 was successfully detoxified by ginger peroxidase. Other direct and acid dyes were also treated either as a single or a mixture of different dyes and it was observed that these dyes were also decolorized significantly under similar experimental conditions. Our study suggests that this enzyme-redox mediator system constitutes a cost effective model which can decolorize the industrial textile effluents and also can reduce the toxic load of environment.
Visible Light Assisted Degradation of Eosin Yellow using Heteroatom Functiona...IJERA Editor
10 ppm EY dye were successfully photodegraded using visible light active 0.75wt% Ba & 0.25wt% Zr codoped
TiO2 nanomaterial that were synthesized by Sol-gel method as nanomaterials under irradiation for 20
minutes and characterized by various advanced instrumental techniques. The X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopic
showed that the prepared nanomaterial were in the anatase phase with 2θ at 25.3º. UV-visible Diffuse
Reflectance Spectra analysis explained that the dopants found in the TiO2, imparts a significance absorption
shift towards visible region and their exisistance were confirmed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectral data.
Quantitatively the formation of hydroxyl radical by the nanomaterial in aqueous solution under visible
light irradiation was investigated by the photoluminiscent technique. Finally the effects of different parameters
in the photocatalytic degradation of EY were established in aqueous solution
Decolourisation of Nigrosine WS dye by Solar Photo-fentonAkash Tikhe
My master's dissertation thesis topic- Decolorization of Nigrosine WS dye by Homogeneous Solar Photo-Fenton Method along with Intro, Method, Result, conclusion and suggestions.
The document summarizes information about MIOX and its Mixed Oxidant Solution (MOS) technology. In 3 sentences: MIOX produces MOS through an electrolytic process that generates hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide from salt water. MOS is a more effective disinfectant than hypochlorite alone, able to destroy biofilms and reduce disinfection byproducts. MIOX has installed over 2,000 units across 30+ countries treating water, wastewater, pools and other applications.
IRJET- Biosorption and Optimization Studies on Congo Red Dye with Fanwort...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study on the biosorption of Congo Red dye using fanwort powder. The researchers characterized the fanwort powder and dye-loaded powder using FTIR, XRD, and SEM analysis. Equilibrium studies were conducted to determine the effects of contact time, biosorbent size, and pH on the biosorption process. The optimum conditions for biosorption were found to be a contact time of 40 minutes, biosorbent size of 53 μm, and pH of 5. Kinetic, isotherm, and thermodynamic studies were also included to understand the biosorption process. A Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the process parameters.
Boron is a chemical element commonly found in the environment in compounds called borates. It is difficult to remove boron from seawater using reverse osmosis (RO) due to its uncharged and nonpolar nature. Multiple configurations can be used to effectively remove boron including double-pass RO systems, single-pass RO combined with ion exchange resins, and multistage RO systems sometimes incorporating ion exchange or acidification steps. The specific configuration used depends on factors like feed water chemistry and the desired permeate quality.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
The document outlines Indian drinking water quality standards according to IS 10500:1991. It provides desirable and permissible limits for various water quality parameters like pH, turbidity, hardness, and heavy metals. It discusses potential health risks of consuming water with levels outside recommended limits for each parameter, including gastrointestinal illness and neurological effects. Sources of contamination and suggested treatment methods are also provided.
Two types of waste are generated from textile processing: process chemicals and fiber wastes. The nature of the waste depends on the type of textile facility, processes used, fibers, and chemicals. Textile effluent can include dispersible wastes mixed with other wastes in wastewater, hard-to-treat wastes that resist treatment and contain non-biodegradable or inorganic materials, and high-volume wastes like wash water, alkaline wastes, and warp sizes. Effluent can also contain hazardous or toxic wastes like metals, chlorinated solvents, and non-degradable surfactants. Common treatment processes include screening, sedimentation, equalization, neutralization, chemical
Closed joint-stock company ECAT is a Russian company established in 2004 in Perm, Russia that specializes in air cleaning systems using plasma, catalysis, and ozone technologies. The company serves clients in industries like chemical, mechanical engineering, oil and gas, food, agriculture, and medicine. ECAT has received recognition for developing innovative catalysts and nanotechnology, with 4 patents and over 10 scientific research projects. It provides solutions for air sterilization and treatment of pollutants like dioxins, VOCs, and ammonia. ECAT's systems can operate at temperatures up to 1040°C with high permeability and catalytic materials that are highly active at low concentrations without precious metals.
The document provides standards and specifications for the process design of plant waste water sewer systems for facilities like oil refineries, chemical plants, and terminals. It outlines different types of main sewer systems including storm water, oily water, non-oily water, chemical, and sanitary systems. It describes various system components and provides design considerations for flow rates, collection, sizing, and effluent characteristics. The document also discusses effluent sources in different plant areas and general requirements for releasing wastes. It includes several appendices with additional information.
This document discusses lessons learned from driven pile foundations used on five contracts for the Central Artery/Tunnel project in Boston. Driven piles supported structures like ramps, walls, and roadway slabs. Issues encountered included pile and soil heave during driving. Load tests showed piles had greater capacity than designed. At one site, preaugering and wick drains to mitigate movement proved ineffective. The information provides insights for engineers using driven pile foundations in soft soils.
This document provides an introduction and overview of pile foundations. It discusses the purpose and functions of pile foundations, including transmitting loads to solid ground and resisting vertical, lateral, and uplift loads. It then classifies piles in multiple ways, such as by load transmission characteristics (end bearing, friction, or a combination), material type (timber, concrete, steel, composite), and installation method (driven or bored). The document outlines each pile type and provides examples to illustrate differences. It aims to extract key points about pile foundations in a clear and student-friendly manner.
This document discusses various methods for sampling water. It begins by explaining that sampling must account for environmental heterogeneity and can involve static or dynamic systems. It then outlines five main sampling methods: systematic, random, judgmental, stratified, and haphazard. For each method, it provides an example of how it would be implemented for water sampling. It also discusses types of samples, equipment for surface and groundwater sampling, and considerations for continuous monitoring. The key points are that sampling must address spatial and temporal variability and that different methods have advantages for different sampling needs and environments.
Water quality can be assessed through various physical, chemical, and biological indicators. It depends on factors like geology, ecosystem, and human activities. Standards are set based on intended uses like drinking, industrial, or environmental. Water is sampled and tested using on-site or laboratory methods to monitor these indicators. Maintaining adequate water quality is important for public health and ecosystem protection.
The document discusses India's efforts to provide safe drinking water to its population. It notes that in 1975, over 1 billion people globally lacked access to safe water. In response, India developed various five-year plans from 1980-1997 to expand access, with the goal of supplying safe water to all rural villages. Key aspects of ensuring water safety discussed include water quality standards, testing for contaminants, monitoring programs, and strategies like water treatment and sanitation inspections. The document also examines health impacts of contaminated water and international targets for access to improved water sources.
This document discusses various parameters for water quality analysis including physical, chemical and biological parameters. It provides methods for analyzing parameters like turbidity, pH, BOD, COD and various metals. It also lists maximum allowable limits of substances in drinking water according to different standards. Microbiological parameters and their standards according to WHO and EU are also listed.
This document outlines World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality. It discusses parameters for acceptability, microbiological, chemical, and radiological quality. It provides threshold values for physical parameters like turbidity and chemical constituents like chlorides, hardness, pH and heavy metals. It also addresses bacteriological indicators of contamination, disinfection methods, and biological aspects related to protozoa and helminths. Further, it outlines limits for inorganic and organic constituents and discusses principles for establishing safe drinking water guidelines like tolerable daily intake. The document emphasizes the importance of surveillance functions like water source approval, monitoring programs, and inspection to help provide safe drinking water.
This document establishes water quality criteria for surface waters in the Philippines according to their classification and designated uses. It defines six classes for fresh surface waters (AA, A, B, C, D) and four classes for coastal and marine waters (SA, SB, SC, SD) based on their intended uses such as public water supply, recreation, fisheries, agriculture and industry. Water quality parameters like dissolved oxygen, pH, BOD, coliforms, toxic substances and temperature are specified for each class. The document also identifies significant wastewater parameters for selected industries to regulate their discharges.
This document discusses various topics related to environmental chemistry and water chemistry. It provides 3 key points:
1) It discusses several biogeochemical cycles that occur in nature like the carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles. It also explains how increasing temperature can increase the rate of chemical reactions involved in these cycles.
2) It summarizes some major properties of water like its high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, ability to form hydrogen bonds, and role as a solvent. Rising temperature would decrease the solubility of oxygen in water.
3) It outlines standards for clean water, wastewater effluent, and surface water quality. It also discusses how decomposer growth in water would
This document provides information on various methods for analyzing water quality parameters. It discusses the importance of measuring dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, and bacteriological parameters like total coliform and fecal coliform. The principles, procedures, calculations, and sources of error for estimation of these parameters using standard methods are explained in detail. The document also discusses other water quality parameters like pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, color and their significance in assessing water quality for different uses. Standards for classification of inland surface waters according to the Central Pollution Control Board are also presented.
ESTIMATION OF CHARACTERSTICS OF WASTEWATERzabby2407
TO KNOW ABOUT WASTEWATER & VARIOUS KINDS OF POLLUTANTS PRESENT IN IT.
CATEGORIES ARE:
PHYSICAL
CHEMICAL
BIOLOGICAL
RADIOLOGICAL
& ESTIMATION OF VARIOUS POLLUTANTS BY VARIOUS TEST.
A report released May 9, 2012 by the National Resources Defense Council critical of the current methods of handling wastewater that results from hydraulic fracturing of natural gas wells in Pennsylvania. The report details the problems (as they see them), and recommended solutions, which include stricter government controls.
Nipigon Secondary Wastewater Treatment Report, March 2013.
The report was prepared by Town of Nipigon Engineer Geoff Aitken in March, 2013 and summarizes operations of the Nipigon secondary wastewater treatment plant.
Water sources and types are analyzed to understand water quality. There are two aspects of water analysis - physical and chemical. Physical analysis measures properties like taste, odor, color, turbidity, pH and total dissolved solids. Chemical analysis identifies substances like arsenic, lead, iron and chlorine. Hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium salts from temporary sources like bicarbonates or permanent sources like chlorides and sulfates. Understanding water sources and properties through analysis is important for determining potability and treatment needs.
The document summarizes a study that investigated the physiological effects of increasing concentrations of nickel chloride hexahydrate on aquatic microbial biofilm. Sweet gum leaf squares were incubated in enriched water for 25 days to develop biofilm. The leaves were then exposed to various concentrations of nickel for 24 hours. Dissolved oxygen levels and microbial respiration were measured. Results showed that microbial respiration initially increased at lower nickel concentrations but then decreased with higher concentrations, supporting the hypothesis. Future work could include more replicates and testing other nickel compounds.
Iron Manganese Continuous Analysis from SEIBOLD-Wasser.pdfENVIMART
www.envimart.vn - ĐT: 028 77727979 - sales@envimart.vn - Nền tảng cung cấp thiết bị, vật tư ngành nước và môi trường. Chuyên cung cấp vật tư cho dự án xử lý nước sạch, nước thải và môi trường. Envimart luôn đồng hành, tin cậy với đối tác nhà thầu, nhà tích hợp và người sử dụng.
Water properties pressure_flocculation coagulationMuhammad Nouman
The document discusses water quality and drinking water standards. It provides information on various types of water quality parameters including physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. It describes factors that affect water quality such as contamination from living organisms, solids, and dissolved materials. It also outlines primary and secondary drinking water standards from organizations like the WHO and EPA, which establish limits for parameters to protect human health and aesthetic quality. Regular water quality monitoring is emphasized to ensure standards are being met.
This document provides an overview of water pollution and water quality parameters. It defines water pollution and describes various water sources. It then discusses key water quality parameters including physical parameters like turbidity, taste and odor, temperature; chemical parameters like pH, hardness, metals, BOD and COD; and biological parameters like pathogens. The document also covers water quality monitoring and control policies in Malaysia. It concludes with discussing effects of pollutants on the environment and humans and principles of water treatment.
Lead Continuous Analysis from SEIBOLD-Wasser.pdfENVIMART
www.envimart.vn - ĐT: 028 77727979 - sales@envimart.vn - Nền tảng cung cấp thiết bị, vật tư ngành nước và môi trường. Chuyên cung cấp vật tư cho dự án xử lý nước sạch, nước thải và môi trường. Envimart luôn đồng hành, tin cậy với đối tác nhà thầu, nhà tích hợp và người sử dụng.
Copper Continuous Analysis from SEIBOLD-Wasser.pdfENVIMART
www.envimart.vn - ĐT: 028 77727979 - sales@envimart.vn - Nền tảng cung cấp thiết bị, vật tư ngành nước và môi trường. Chuyên cung cấp vật tư cho dự án xử lý nước sạch, nước thải và môi trường. Envimart luôn đồng hành, tin cậy với đối tác nhà thầu, nhà tích hợp và người sử dụng.
This document provides guidelines on water quality parameters and their acceptable and permissible limits. It lists parameters for physical, chemical, and bacteriological/microbiological characteristics. The parameters include color, odor, pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, calcium, magnesium, hardness, alkalinity, sulfate, chloride, nitrate, iron, fluoride, E.coli, and coliforms. It also lists accredited laboratories in Bangalore where water samples can be tested and brands of portable water quality meters. Finally, it provides explanations for some key parameters including ammonia, electrical conductivity, calcium hardness, iron, nitrate, nitrite, phosphates, total dissolved solids, and pH.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) –BIS is the National Standard Body of India established under the BIS Act 1986 for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
This document provides information about water sources and water treatment in Krakow, Poland. It discusses the four water treatment plants that supply Krakow, and describes the multi-step process of water purification including ozonation, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. It also summarizes water quality data for different treatment facilities and discusses industrial water treatment through facilities like Plaszow and Kujawy. Overall, the document outlines the water supply and treatment systems that provide drinking water to Krakow residents.
Nearly all water in the world contains contaminants, even in the absence of nearby pollution-causing activities
Many dissolved minerals, carbon compounds, and microbes find their way into drinking water as it comes in contact with air and soil
When pollutant and contaminant levels in drinking water are high, they may affect household routines and be detrimental to human health
The only way to ensure that your water supply is safe is to have a periodic laboratory water quality analysis done on your drinking water. Hach India is the leading provider of high end water quality analysis equipment in india
Similar to Assinment On Potable Water Standard (20)
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
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Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
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Are you new to data warehouses (DWH)? Do you need to check whether your data warehouse follows the best practices for a good design? In both cases, this webinar is for you.
A data warehouse is a central relational database that contains all measurements about a business or an organisation. This data comes from a variety of heterogeneous data sources, which includes databases of any type that back the applications used by the company, data files exported by some applications, or APIs provided by internal or external services.
But designing a data warehouse correctly is a hard task, which requires gathering information about the business processes that need to be analysed in the first place. These processes must be translated into so-called star schemas, which means, denormalised databases where each table represents a dimension or facts.
We will discuss these topics:
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- Understanding dictionaries and how to identify business entities;
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Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
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An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?Speck&Tech
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Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
In the rapidly evolving landscape of technologies, XML continues to play a vital role in structuring, storing, and transporting data across diverse systems. The recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present new methodologies for enhancing XML development workflows, introducing efficiency, automation, and intelligent capabilities. This presentation will outline the scope and perspective of utilizing AI in XML development. The potential benefits and the possible pitfalls will be highlighted, providing a balanced view of the subject.
We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
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The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
The presentation aims to deliver a comprehensive overview of AI usage in XML development, providing attendees with the necessary knowledge to make informed decisions. Whether you’re at the early stages of adopting AI or considering integrating it in advanced XML development, this presentation will cover all levels of expertise.
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The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
AI 101: An Introduction to the Basics and Impact of Artificial IntelligenceIndexBug
Imagine a world where machines not only perform tasks but also learn, adapt, and make decisions. This is the promise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), a technology that's not just enhancing our lives but revolutionizing entire industries.
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
3. intROduCtiOn
There are several potential sources to contaminate drinking water. Bacteriological
contamination of drinking water has been reported to be one of the most serious
problems throughout the country in rural as well as urban areas . Such contamination is
attributed to leakage of pipes, pollution from sewerage pipes due to problem within the
distribution system, intermittent water supply, and shallow water tables due to human
activities. A second strong source for ground water contamination in irrigated and
industrial areas is chemical pollution from toxic substances from the industrial effluents,
textile dyes, pesticides, nitrogenous fertilizers, arsenic and other chemicals. In addition,
excessive monsoon rains, floods, herbicides, fungicides, untreated municipal waste,
sewage breakdowns, and coastal water pollution due to waste discharges and oil spills
are extremely hazardous for drinking water. For the sake of public health, it is absolutely
essential to establish drinking water quality standards and criteria that are chemically
balanced and medically safe.
General public, in India, use subjective quality criteria like brackish, foul smelling, bad
tasting, turbid or coloured water to determine that it is not suitable for drinking. The
agencies responsible for monitoring of water quality perform periodic checks of the basic
water parameters against certain recommended standards. In order to ensure that
consumers throughout the country are receiving quality water, research-based standards
and guidelines for quality drinking water must be available to monitoring agencies
To be safe for human consumption, drinking water must be free from microorganisms
capable of causing disease. It must not contain minerals and organic substances at
concentrations that could produce adverse effects. Drinking water should be
aesthetically
acceptable; it should be free from apparent turbidity, color, and odor, and from any
objectionable taste.
Impure water should be purified by being boiled over a fire, or heated in the sun or by
dipping a heated iron into it and then allowed to cool, or it may be purified by filtration
through sand and coarse gravel
Surface water sources are subject to ever-increasing withdrawals to supply a growing
population, industry, and agriculture. Heavy withdrawals of water for consumptive use,
such as irrigation, decrease stream flows available for downstream dilution of
wastewaters.
In the case of underground water supply sources, excessive withdrawals may
have an adverse effect on the chemical quality of the supply, such as increasing the
content of iron or manganese or of total dissolved solids.
THE HISTORY OF WATER TREATMENT
Ancient Practices
The quest for pure, abundant potable water is not a modern idea, as the beginnings of
recorded history confirm. The Old Testament tells of the danger of ‘‘bitter’’ water and
of a desperate search for life-sustaining, pure water. Sanskrit and Greek writings dating
3
4. back 6,000 years describe early water treatment:Impure water should be purified by
being boiled over a fire, or heated in the sun or bydipping a heated iron into it and then
allowed to cool, or it may be purified by filtrationthrough sand and coarse gravel.2
Standards for Quality Drinking Water in India
PROPERTIES/PARAME GUIDELINE/STANDARD WHO STANDARDS
TERS VALUES FOR India
Physical
Colour ≤15 TCU ≤15 TCU
Taste Non objectionable/Acceptable Non
objectionable/Acceptable
Odour Non objectionable/Acceptable Non
objectionable/Acceptable
Turbidity ‹ 5 NTU ‹ 5 NTU
Total hardness as CaCO3 < 500 mg/l ---
TDS ‹ 1000 ‹ 1000
pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
Chemical
Essential Inorganic mg/Litre mg/Litre
Aluminium (Al) mg/1 <0.2 0.2
Antimony (Sb) <0.005 (P) 0.02
Arsenic (As) < 0.05 (P) 0.01
Barium (Ba) <2.0(P) 0.7
Boron (B) 0.3 – 0.5 (P) 0.5 (T)
Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 – 0.01 0.003
Chloride (Cl) <400 250
Chromium (Cr) <0.05 0.05
Copper (Cu) 1–2 2
4
5. PROPERTIES/PARAME GUIDELINE/STANDARD WHO STANDARDS
TERS VALUES FOR India
Toxic Inorganic mg/Litre mg/Litre
Cyanide (CN) 0.05 – 0.1(P) 0.07
Fluoride (F)* <1.5 1.5
Lead (Pb) <0.05 0.01
Manganese (Mn) < 0.5 0.5
Mercury (Hg) <0.001 0.001
Nickel (Ni) <0.02 0.02
Nitrate (NO3)* <50 50
Nitrite (NO2)* <3 (P) 3
Selenium (Se) 0.01(P) 0.01
Residual chlorine 0.2-0.5 at consumer end --
0.5-1.5 at source
Zinc (Zn) 2.0 – 5.0 3
* indicates priority health related inorganic constituents which need regular monitoring.
P indicates that the limits given are provisional because the authenticated data is not available for the conformation of human health
related effects with these constituents.
Organic
Pesticides mg/L As recommended as
condition
Phenolic compounds < 0.002
(as Phenols) mg/L
Polynuclear aromatic 0.01 ( By GC/MS method)
hydrocarbons (as PAH) g/L
Bacterial
Escherechia coli 0 – 3 MPN
Non-chlorinated water (only in 5 % sample of water)
5
6. PROPERTIES/PARAME GUIDELINE/STANDARD WHO STANDARDS
TERS VALUES FOR India
Escherechia coli Must not be detectable in 100
ml sample
Coliform As above
Radioactive
Alpha Emitters bq/L or pCi 1 pCi --
Beta emitters
1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments
When originally passed in 1974, the SDWA required USEPA to:
• Set interim drinking water standards.
• Conduct (through the National Academy of Sciences [NAS]) an assessment of
the risks of exposure to drinking water contaminants.
• Revise the interim standards to reflect the NAS findings.
The NAS study was completed in 1977 and became the basis for several amendments
and reauthorizations to the act. The SDWA was amended in 1977, 1979, and 1980.
However, USEPA was slow to promulgate the revised standards.
Frustrated by the lack of progress and concerned by continued reports of detecting
organic and microbial contamination, Congress enacted sweeping changes in 1986.
The SDWA amendments of 1986, placed EPA under stringent time schedules to
promulgate
regulations for a long list of contaminants (that may or may not have been
likely found in drinking water). The major provisions of the 1986 amendments included:
12
• Mandatory standards for 83 contaminants by June, 1989.
• Mandatory regulations of 25 contaminants every three years.
• National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations were declared National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs).
• Recommended maximum contaminant level (RMCL) goals were replaced by
maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs).
• Required designation of best available technology for each contaminant regulated.
• Specification of criteria for deciding when filtration of surface water supplies is
required.
• Disinfection of all public water supplies with some exceptions for groundwater
that meet, as yet, unspecific criteria.
• Monitoring for contaminants that are not regulated.
• A ban on lead solders, flux, and pipe in public water systems.
• New programs for wellhead protection and protection of sole-source aquifers.
• Streamlined and more powerful enforcement provisions.
As a result of the 1986 amendments (and encouraged by numerous lawsuits by the
6
7. Bull Run Coalition), EPA did indeed move quickly to regulate the remaining
contaminants
on the list of 83 (23 of which were already promulgated by 1986). However,
limited resources within the agency and several controversial proposals (e.g., radon)
made it difficult for EPA to fully meet the congressional mandates.
COLOUR OF WATER
WHO STANDARD: Colour is detectable in a glass of water above 15 True Colour Units
(TCU). Levels of colour below15 TCU are acceptable to consumers. No health-based
guideline value is proposed for colour in drinking water.
INDIA STANDARD: (1) Colour parameter ≤ 15 TCU/Hazen Units.
Colour of water is one of the most important and conveniently observed indicators of
itsquality. The highest quality drinking water should be colourless. Potential
inorganic, organic and bacteriological contributors of colour to natural water
are: (1) inorganic constituents such as dissolved iron; (2) dissolved organic
substances like humic or fulvic acids, organics from anthropogenic sources such
as dyes; and (3) suspended particulate matter such as plant debris, phytoplankton
and zooplankton. Some of these contributors may be harmless but others are
definitely harmful.
Suspended organic matter may itself be harmless but may harbour bacteria and
viral contaminants. Trihalomethanes (THM’s) that are generated in the post filtration
disinfection stage of water treatment are considered carcinogenic. Organic materials
pass through coagulation and filtration and are exposed to chlorine acting as a
disinfectant. Humic materials which give a tea like appearance to water are an ideal
example of compounds which may serve as THM precursors. Presence of colour in water
may, therefore, indicate the presence of organics and if organics are there and the water
has been subjected to chlorination, the chances of the existence of THM’s are
considerable.
Traditionally, the colours of liquids, including drinking water are classified
according to the Alpha/Hazen/Pt-Co colour scale. One alpha, hazen or Pt-Co colour unit
is produced by a solution having a concentration of 1mg/L of Platinum.
7
8. To determine that a sample of water has no colour, a visible light (400 – 850 nm)
is passed through it. If there is little or no attenuation, it implies an absence of light
absorption, reflection, or refraction (the three main mechanisms that give colour to an
object).
By comparison with colour of solutions having different concentration of
platinum and hence colours, one can determine the colour units of drinking water. It is
practically observed that below 15 Hazen, colour of water in a clear glass container may
not be detectable. Most drinking water standards, the world over therefore require that
the colour parameter may not exceed 15 Hazen.
TASTE AND ODOUR
WHO STANDARD: Non-objectionable/Acceptable
INDIA STANDARD: Non-objectionable/Acceptable
Tastes and odours in water supplies can generally be attributed to two different
causative elements: the actions of human beings upon the aquatic environment and
natural forces within the environment occasionally affecting each other.
Actinomycetes (bacteria) and algae are two important groups of organisms that
produce taste and odour related toxins in drinking water. Actinomycetes are mould like
bacteria that produce strong smelling chemicals with earthy and mouldy odours.
Actinomycetes and other bacteria can grow as biofilms on the inner surfaces of pipes in
the distribution system and cause odours in the household water. Many organisms impart
taste and odour to the aquatic environment due to their defence mechanism by releasing
repellents and other organic compounds to even kill their predators. These compounds
are naturally very obnoxious.
In heavily polluted waters, say near the effluent outlets, or where there are high
nutrient levels from domestic, agricultural or industrial fertilizers, excessive plant and
algal growth can degrade the water quality and are a very visible cause of the taste and
odour problem. During the death of this material, bacterial action can produce a variety
of unpleasant odours (putrid, sulphurous, sharp, rancid, methane, etc.). These can be
particularly intense where the decay occurs under the oxygen depleted anaerobic
8
9. conditions. Diatoms which are very common in surface waters, and high numbers of
these algae can also result in strong source-water odour. Diatoms store polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) in their cells, and a process similar to the one that is the cause of the
development of rancid odours in foods containing saturated fatty acids such as fish and
vegetable oil etc. works here whereby the fatty acids in diatoms are broken down by cell
enzymes into odorous compounds.
Because of the various combinations of inorganic and organic compounds that
cause tastes and odours in water supplies, no simple treatment is cost effective for all
taste and odours but generally some form of oxidation is usually effective and potassium
permanganate and chlorine dioxide are commonly used.
TURBIDITY
WHO STANDARD: Ideally median turbidity should be below 5 Nephlometric Turbidity
Units (NTU).
INDIA STANDARD: Below 5 NTU.
Turbidity (muddy aspect) in water is caused by suspended matter, such as
clay,silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble coloured organic
compounds, plankton and other microscopic organisms. The particles that cause
turbidity in water range in size from colloidal dimensions (approximately 10 nm)
to diameters of the order of 0.1 mm.
Originally, turbidity was measured in terms of a Jackson turbidity unit (JTU). In
this case the height of the turbid water column, sufficient to make invisible a standard
candle flame, when observed vertically, gave a measure of the turbidity of the water
sample; obviously, the longer the column the lower the turbidity and vice versa. A
column of 21.5 cm was assigned a value of 100 JTU. The Jackson candle turbidimeter
turbidity measuring equipment) is applicable only to turbidity values greater than 25
JTU and, as such, has limited applicability to the monitoring of drinking water.
9
10. Standard nephelometers are able to respond to changes of about 0.02 NTU at
turbidity values below 1 NTU and the practical lower limit of the standard nephelometric
method, therefore, is about 0.1 NTU.
Levels of turbidity in raw water can range from less than 1 to over 1000 NTU and
control of turbidity in public drinking water supplies is important for both health and
aesthetic reasons. Excessive turbidity makes the treated water not pleasing to look at. It
can also interfere with disinfection processes and the maintenance of chlorine residual.
In fact chlorination of water containing turbidity, due to organic matter, can produce
carcinogenic trihalomethanes.
Particulate materials in water are usually not in themselves potential hazards,
but they may have indirect effects. The concentrations of heavy metal ions and biocides
are usually much higher in suspended solids than in water. The adsorption capacity of
suspended particulates can lead to the entrapment of undesirable compounds and
pesticides like DDT, and Herbicides such as 2; 4-D, paraquat and diquat have shown
twenty fold increase in solubility in waters with raised turbidity values. When such
contaminated particles enter the stomach, through drinking water, the release of the
pollutants could occur, with possible deleterious effects.
For many countries the value of 5 NTU has been set as the allowable limit for drinking
water at the point of consumption. In Pakistan, health issues related to infected water are
of critical importance and the turbidity being an easily measurable parameter, even
down to 0.1 NTU, should be used as a strong indicator for screening of the potable
water. In view of this it is proposed, that a value of 1 NTU may be adopted as the
drinking water standard for India.
pH OF DRINKING WATER
WHO STANDARDS: Most raw waters lie in the pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
INDIA STANDARD: pH range from 6.5 to 8.5.
Careful attention to pH control is necessary at all stages of water treatment and
distribution system to ensure satisfactory water clarification and disinfection and also to
minimize the corrosion of water mains and pipes in household water systems. If this is
10
11. not done, contamination of the drinking water may result manifesting itself in the form of
taste, odour and appearance changes. At pH less than 7, for example, corrosion of water
pipes may be accelerated releasing metals into the water; this may be a cause of concern
if the concentration of such metals exceeds the permissible limits.
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is the most abundant metallic element and constitutes about 8% of the
Earth’s crust. Aluminium is iatrogenically introduced in drinking water through the
treatment process. The high concentration have been linked to the development of
Alzheimer Disease (WHO , EHC document, 1997). Following good standard operating
procedures, concentrations of aluminium of 0.1mg/l or less are achievable in large water
treatment facilities. Problem may arise among the small facilities (serving less than
10,000 people), in attaining the desired level due to the small size of the p[ant that could
provide little buffering for fluctuation in operation. Other limitations rest in the
availability of resources and capacity to tackle with the specific operational problems.
For such small facilities, 0.2 mg/l (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third
edition, 2004) or less is a practicable level for aluminium for the deliverable water. Same
is applicable for adaptation for INDIA i.e. less than 0.2 mg/l.
Antimony (Sb)
The daily oral uptake of antimony appears to be significantly higher than
exposure by other routes. The common source of antimony in drinking water appears to
be dissolution from metal plumbing and fittings. It appears that antimony leached from
antimony containing materials would be in the form of the antimony (V) oxo-anion,
which is less toxic form. Antimony trioxide is genotoxic due to its low bioavailability.
Potassium antimony tartrate is most soluble form of antimony. The chronic exposure to it
may not be associated with an additional carcinogenic risk (WHO, Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). For India , in order to cautiously
contribute towards reducing the burden of chronic diseases, a provisional value of less
than or equal to 0.005 mg/l is set as standard.
11
12. Arsenic (As)
Arsenic is a metal-like substance found in small amounts in nature. Drinking water
containing high levels of arsenic may cause health problems. There are two main ways
arsenic can get into the drinking water. Mineral deposits in some areas naturally contain
high levels of arsenic. Groundwater flowing through these deposits can dissolve arsenic
from the minerals. This can increase the amount of arsenic in to the well water. Arsenic
has no smell or taste, so it is not possible to tell that the drinking water contains arsenic
or not unless it is tested in the lab. Adverse health effects of arsenic depend on the type
and amount of arsenic that has entered the body, the length of exposure time and the
response of the exposed body. Unborn babies, young children, people with long-term
illnesses and elderly people are at greatest risk due to arsenic exposure.value for the
standard for India has been set provisionally at less than or equal to 0.05 mg/l
Barium (Ba)
Barium is normally found as a trace element both in igneous and sedimentary rocks. It is
also used in various industrial applications. Food is considered to be the primary source
of intake for the non-occupationally exposed population. There is no evidence that
barium is carcinogenic or mutagenic but the toxicological end-point of greatest concern
to humans appears to be its potential to cause hypertension (WHO, Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). Its provisional value has been proposed to
be less than or equal to 2.0 mg/l for India.
Boron (B)
Boron in surface water is frequently a consequence of the discharge of treated sewage
effluent. It is also naturally found in the edible plants and general population obtains it
through the food intake. Conventional treatment processes do not take Boron out and the
special procedures should be adopted to remove Boron from the drinking water. The
methods such as ion exchange and reverse osmosis may enable the substantial reduction.
These processes are expensive too. Blending with low-boron supplies may be the only
economical method to reduce boron concentration in waters where these concentrations
12
13. are very high (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). The
provisional range for Boron for India is 0.3-0.5 mg/l.
Cadmium (Cd)
Now-a-days Cadmium compounds are widely used in the batteries. There is a
vast use of Cadmium in the steel and plastic industry. It is released to the environment
through the wastewater and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers.
The drinking water may get contaminated by impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes
and solders and some metal fittings. Food is daily source of exposure to Cadmium.
Smoking is a significant additional source of cadmium exposure (WHO, Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). Cadmium accumulates primarily in the
kidneys and has a long biological half-life of 10-35 years, in humans. For India a value
of 0.003-0.01 would be appropriate, which is somewhat less strict than WHO’s one .
Chloride (Cl)
Chloride in drinking water comes from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents,
urban runoff containing de-icing salt and saline intrusion. The main source for humans
comes from the edible salt. The high dose of chloride may result in detectable taste at
250mg/l but no health-based guideline value is proposed (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking
Water Quality, third edition, 2004). However, less that 400 mg/l would suffice as an
Indian standard for Chloride.
Chromium (Cr)
The toxicological database fro chromium carries uncertainties. Total chromium
concentrations in drinking water are usually less than 2µg/litre, although the
concentration as high as 120µg/litre has been reported. In some epidemiological
studies, an association has been found between exposure to chromium (VI) by the
inhalation route and lung cancer. The cautious guideline for chromium has been
proposed that is 0.05 mg/l in drinking water (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality, third edition, 2004).
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14. Copper (Cu)
Copper concentrations in the drinking water vary widely. Along with the
manufacturing of the commercial appliances, it is also used as the copper sulphate
pentahydrate for the control of algae. Copper concentration in the treated water often
increases during distribution, particularly in the systems where an acidic pH exists or in
the presence of high-carbonate waters with an alkaline pH. The guidelines are derived
on the basis to be protective against the gastrointestinal effects of copper (WHO,
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004).
Cyanide (CN)
The cyanide is occasionally found in the drinking water, especially among the developing
countries. Cyanide has acute toxic effects. Undesired effects on thyroid gland and the
nervous system were observed in some populations as a consequence of the long-term
consumption of inadequately processed cassava containing high levels of cyanide (WHO,
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). India needs to have a closer
watch over the values of Cyanide levels in the drinking water being served to the masses
on account of its acute toxicity, as also true for the microbiological contamination. In
this proviso, a provisional value of 0.05-.1 is set as standards for Cyanide in drinking
water for India.
Fluoride (F)
Fluoride is present in the Earth’s crust and forms a part of number of minerals.
The exposure of the human population depends upon the geographical location of the
inhabitants. Daily consumption is from food mainly, and less from the drinking water
and toothpastes. In some northern areas of India it is found high amounts in the run off
water that is consumed by the people living over there and has led to the discoloration of
the teeth (dental fluorosis). Epidemiological evidence shows that fluoride primarily
affects the skeletal tissue (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition,
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15. 2004). A few recent incidences of fluoride in drinking water resulting into skeletal
deformation (.e.g. among in children in kanpur, kolkata), pose strict monitoring of
fluoride in drinking water and value for India has been tightened than the WHO’s one
i.e. less than or equal to 1.5 mg/l.
Iodine
Iodine, as iodide , occurs normally in water. Iodine is also used for the water
treatment in the emergency situations. Iodine is an essential element in the synthesis of
thyroid hormone. Lack of iodine in drinking water and food, leads to the thyroid
diseases. However, some recent studies from China also suggest that an excess of iodine
in drinking water my also lead to thyroid diseases (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality, third edition, 2004).
Lead
Lead is used in lead-acid batteries, solders and alloys. The organolead
compounds tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead have also been used as anti knock and
lubricating agents in petrol. This use is now in a decline and the exposure from the air is
declining but source from drinking water constitutes the major proportion. Lead is a
general toxicant and accumulates in the skeleton. The placental (vertical) transmission in
humans occurs as early as 12th week of gestation. Young children absorb 4-5 times as
compared to the adults. Lead is toxic to both central and peripheral nervous systems. The
cross sectional epidemiological studies have shown that there is statistically significant
associations between blood lead levels of 30µg/dl and more and intelligence quotient
deficits of about four points in children. Results from prospective (longitudinal)
epidemiological studies suggest that prenatal exposure to lead may have early effects on
mental development that do not persist to the age of 4 years. This has been supported
through the research on primates that the significant behavioural and cognitive effects
were observed following postnatal exposure resulting in blood lead levels ranging from
11 to 33µg/dl (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). Most
of the lead in drinking water arises from the plumbing systems in the buildings. The
measures to control the corrosion may reduce the amount of lead in drinking water.
15
16. Considering drastic effects of Lead, for India the value has been set at less than or equal
to 0.05 mg/l.
Manganese
Manganese is naturally occurring, one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust.
Usually it occurs along with iron. It levels in fresh water ranges from 1 to 200µg/litre.
Higher levels in aerobic waters are usually associated with industrial pollution.
Manganese is an essential trace element too. 20% of TDI allocation to the drinking
water is required usually fro an adult of weight of 60 kg which consumes 2litres/day of
drinking water. The high amounts may also result in the discoloration of drinking water
and become objectionable for the consumer (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality, third edition, 2004). The value for India is proposed to be less than or equal to
the WHO’s one.
Mercury
Mercury is used in electrolyte production of chlorine and also used in gold
mining. It is used in the thermometers and their spill can cause exposure to mercury.
Mercury in uncontaminated drinking water is thought to be in the form of Hg2+. Food is
main source of mercury in non-occupationally exposed population. The mean dietary
intake of mercury in various countries ranges from 2 to 20µg/day per person (WHO,
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). The value for India is
proposed to be less than or equal to the WHO’s one.
Nickel
A metal usually used for making alloys and producing stainless steel. Normally
water is minor contributor to the total daily oral intake but if there is heavy pollution or
use of certain types of kettles, of non-resistant materials in wells or of water that has
come in contact with nickel- or chromium-plated taps, the nickel contribution from water
may become significant to the total daily oral intake. There is lack of data and evidence
that the oral intake of Nickel might lead to cancer. However, the inhalation may lead to
risk of developing cancers among humans (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality, third edition, 2004).
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17. Nitrate and Nitrite
Nitrate is mainly used in inorganic fertilizers and nitrite is used in food preservatives.
The nitrate concentrations normally remain low in ground and surface water but can
reach to high limits as a result of run off or leaching from the agricultural land. The
primary health concern regarding nitrate and nitrite is the formation of
methaemoglobinaemia, also known as “blue –baby syndrome”. The nitrate is reduced to
nitrite in the stomach of the baby and it oxidizes the haemoglobin (Hb) to
methaemoglobin (metHb) that is unable to transport oxygen within the body. The
methaemoglobinaemia causes cyanosis and ultimately leads to asphyxia, if left untreated.
The normal metHb levels in infants under 3 months of age are less than 3%. The
consequences manifest themselves when the concentrations reach 10% or more. Nitrate
and nitrite in drinking water is the main source and also where there is relatively high
intake in relation to body weight (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third
edition, 2004).
Selenium
Selenium, like magnesium, is an essential trace element. Foods like cereals, meat
and fish are principal source of selenium. The recommended daily intake for humans is
1µg/kg of body weight for adults. Selenium compounds have been shown to be genotoxic
in in vitro systems with metabolic activation, but not in humans (WHO, Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality, third edition, 2004). However, in humans, the toxic effects of
long-term selenium exposure are manifested in nails, hair and liver. Different studies
have give data on such effects with daily intakes ranging from 0.24 mg/day to 0.7mg/day.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The inorganic salts (magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates,
chlorides and sulphates) and small amounts of organic matter comprise TDS.
Concentrations of TDS in water vary too much extent due to the variability in the
geographical locations. There is no reliable data available on the health effects of the
TDS in drinking water (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, third edition,
2004).
17
18. Zinc
Zinc, like magnesium and selenium, is also an essential trace element. It is found in all
foods and potable water. The levels of zinc in surface and ground water normally do not
exceed 0.01mg/litre and0.05mg/litre, respectively. Concentration in tap water may
increase due to dissolution from the pipes. The daily requirement for a adult man is
15-20mg/day. A range of 2-5 mg/l may be appropriate for India although up to 3 mg/l is
usually acceptable for consumption for consumers (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking
Water, )
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Radionuclides are radioactive atoms that disintegrate to smaller atomic mass
atoms, releasing energy in the process. The energy is primarily released in one of the
three forms:
1. Alpha particles consisting of the helium nuclei with two protons and two neutrons
and thus bearing a charge of +2
2. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons hence carrying a charge of -1
3. Gamma radiation which has a true electromagnetic character and hence travel
with the speed of light (electromagnetic radiation)
Due to the difference in their constitution, the three types of radiation have
different health effects on humans. Alpha particle travel at moderate speed but due to
their size and charge, if ingested, could be very damaging. Beta particles which travel
very fast, near to the speed of light but their smaller size make them less damaging.
Gamma radiation has tremendous penetrating power but is less lethal at lower doses
normally to be encountered in drinking water.
Radioactivity in water can be natural or man-made. Naturally occurring
radioactivity comes from elements in the earth’s crust or from cosmic ray bombardment
in the atmosphere and is not of critical importance in most instances. Radionuclides
whose origin can be linked with human activity may be generated from sources such as
mining of ores, nuclear fuel processing, power stations, and radiopharmaceuticals, etc.
THE MICROBIAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER
18
19. Total coliform bacteria are a collection of relatively harmless microorganisms
that live in large numbers in the digestive systems and intestines of human beings and
warm- and cold-blooded animals. These microorganisms aid in the digestion of food and
can be found in humans and animals wastes. Soil and decaying vegetable can also be a
source of the coliform bacteria. Some coliform bacteria known as fecal coliforms are
only present in fecal material. The most common member of this group being Escherichia
coli (abbreviated as E. coli) in the Family Enterobacteriaceae named Escherichia
(Genus) coli (Species). These organisms may be separated from the total coliform group
by their ability to grow at elevated temperatures and are associated only with the fecal
material of warm-blooded animals. Approximately 0.1% of the total bacteria within an
adult's intestines are represented by E. coli. Although, in a newborn infant's intestines E.
coli, along with lactobacilli and enterococci represent the most abundant bacterial flora.
There are other disease causing bacteria, or viruses present in human waste. If
such a waste finds its way to a water source it would contaminate it and such waters
would definitely become a vector for that particular disease. Some of the most common,
microbes linked to drinking water contaminated by human waste and associated diseases
are:
• Compylobacter species are believed to cause 5-14% of cases of diarrhoea
worldwide. The most commonly isolated species of Campylobacter is C. jejuni, an
organism that causes gastrointestinitis. In developing countries the illness occurs
primarily in the children under 2 years of age. There is a high association
between use of un-chlorinated water and campylobacter infection. In a safe
drinking water, there should be no such organisms.
• Vibrio cholerae, is the causative organism of cholera. However, Vibrio cholerae
01 spreads through food/water borne route and through the street vendors. The
disease causes massive diarrhoea, dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.
• Shigella sonnei and other related Shigella strains are often responsible for the
diarrhoeal diseases (shigellosis) that occur under adverse conditions. Once
infected with Shigella, the patient develops diarrhoea, fever, and stomach cramps
starting a day or two after the exposure to the bacterium. The diarrhoea is often
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20. bloody. Untreated surface or even well water may result in shigellosis in the
areas where unhygienic conditions prevail.
• Escherichia coli can cause a variety of syndromes and is notoriously responsible
for diarrhoeal episodes, most common being the “Traveller’s diarrhoea”. Water
and food are the common vehicles of the transmission of the E coli.
• Giardiasis, a diarrhoeal illness, is caused by Giardia lamblia. Giardia is a
microscopic parasite that inhabits in the intestine of humans and animals. The
parasite is passed in the stool of an infected person or animal.
• Hepatitis A and E are the waterborne viral illnesses that are the most common
ones to occur as an outbreak in a defined population. The water borne hepatitis
epidemics are common.
POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH’S)
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH’s) are a class of organic compounds
containing two or more fused aromatic rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms of which
benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is an important representative. Studies involving inhalation and
skin exposure have generated clear evidence that mixtures of PAHs are carcinogenic to
humans.
PESTICIDES, HERBICIDES, FUNGICIDES, ETC.
The number of these chemical, in use in Pakistan is so large (Annex A & B), and
every day new chemicals are continuously added so that it is difficult, in fact impossible,
to identify specific limits for each single one of these. It is recommended therefore that
wherever the presence of any particular compound is thought to exist, the water should
be analysed, specifically for it and, declared fit for drinking only if the concentration is
found to be below the detection limit of the analytical technique under the standard
method for each.
TO ENHANCE AND MAINTAIN STANDARDS OF QUALITY DRINKING
WATER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PLANS OF ACTION
1. Preventive measures must be taken at all levels to prevent water contamination.
2. Protection of water sources should be the first line of defence.
20
21. 3. All water distributing agencies must be supplied copies of the finalized standards.
4. Water treatment plants and water distribution systems must work in collaboration
with each other to effectively implement quality standards for drinking water.
5. Sampling plans should be devised for raw and finished water. All samples of water
should be accompanied by complete and accurate identification and descriptive data.
6. Standard methods for the examination of water (ASTM, ISO, etc.) should not only be
specified, but also be prepared under local conditions and made available to the
working professionals to obtain reliable data.
7. Cost effective methodology should be designed for monitoring and surveillance of
water quality.
8. All critical parameters should be monitored.
9. Scarce resources should not be wasted for monitoring constituents of minor
importance.
10. All personnel responsible for monitoring the quality of water should be educated and
provided in-service training on a regular basis.
11. A critical and objective review of existing national research data on the quality of
drinking water should be conducted on a regular basis.
12. Extensive resources should be devoted to upgrade existing water distribution
infrastructure.
13. The cleanliness of water reservoirs/tanks of users must be mandatory.
14. Public awareness of their responsibility towards establishment and maintenance of
drinking water quality standards. In this view low cost measures to be applied at a
household level (use of lemon juice, SODIS and chlorination etc.) should be applied.
15. Standard quality water must be supplied equitably to all consumers at reasonably
affordable cost keeping the concerns of equity and equality as of prime importance.
16. Precautions must be taken against elements that create and elevate fear in general
public to promote sale of bottled water. Irrational advertisement and use of bottled
drinking water must be discouraged.
17. Increase coverage of water supply and water treatment facilities.
18. Prime importance should be given to the issue of quantity of water over quality where
water is scarce such as in Baluchistan and efforts to improve availability and
21
22. accessibility to the quality water should be made. Windmills can be an option to draw
ground water for consumers on affordable prices. Public campaigns to save water
should be initiated.
22