This presentation is about how cell cycle and cell division takes place in plant and animal cell .... and this presentation also includes mitosis and meiosis and significance of it.
This slide describes the various stages of the Eukaryotic cell cycle. The diagrams included here explains the various changes that take place during the mitotic division of a eukaryotic cell.
It is the presentation on the MEIOSIS phase of the Cell division.
It includes all the details and definitions that are related to the topic of meiosis with the labelled diagrams.
If you have any query or a question, you may ask in the comment box.
thanks.
Cell cycle & Mitosis presentation to help understand the basic concepts related to the topic. This topic is included in the Maharashtra Board curriculum for XIth Std Biology paper. All videos inserted in this powerpoint have their respective copyrights. Unauthorized distribution and copying of the same is prohibited
This presentation is about how cell cycle and cell division takes place in plant and animal cell .... and this presentation also includes mitosis and meiosis and significance of it.
This slide describes the various stages of the Eukaryotic cell cycle. The diagrams included here explains the various changes that take place during the mitotic division of a eukaryotic cell.
It is the presentation on the MEIOSIS phase of the Cell division.
It includes all the details and definitions that are related to the topic of meiosis with the labelled diagrams.
If you have any query or a question, you may ask in the comment box.
thanks.
Cell cycle & Mitosis presentation to help understand the basic concepts related to the topic. This topic is included in the Maharashtra Board curriculum for XIth Std Biology paper. All videos inserted in this powerpoint have their respective copyrights. Unauthorized distribution and copying of the same is prohibited
Assignment on Preclinical Screening of ImmunomodulatorsDeepak Kumar
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
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Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
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1. The cell cycle is the series of events in which
cellular components are doubled, and then
accurately segregated into daughter cells.
4/30/2018 1
Phases of cell cycle
Interphase
G1
S
G2
Mitotic phase
karyokinesis
Cytokinesis
2. Cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance mechanisms
that monitor the order, integrity, and fidelity of the
major events of the cell cycle.
These include growth to the appropriate cell size, the
replication and integrity of the chromosomes, and their
accurate segregation at mitosis.
4/30/2018 2
4. G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell
for division. At a certain point - the
restriction point - the cell is committed to
division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic
material. Each chromosome now consists of
two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the
cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis
and cytokinesis.
.
4/30/2018 4
5. M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed
by a cell division (cytokinesis).
4/30/2018 5
6. It is a form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is
conventionally divided into five stages:
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase
4/30/2018 6
7. Prophase occupies over half of mitosis.
The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a
number of small vesicles and the nucleolus
disintegrates.
A structure known as the centrosome duplicates
itself to form two daughter centrosomes that
migrate to opposite ends of the cell.
Each replicated chromosome can now be seen to
consist of two identical chromatids (or sister
chromatids) held together by a structure known as
the centromere.
4/30/2018 7
10. 4/30/2018 10
Metaphase
Metaphase is characterized by
the "metaphase plate".
This is a mid-point region within
the cell that is formed/defined by
the centromeres of the chromatid
pairs aligning along the
microtubules at the centre of the
miotic spindle
12. Telophase begins after the chromosomal
movement stops.
The identical sets of chromosomes - which
are by this stage at opposite poles of the cell,
uncoil and revert to the long, thin, thread-
like chromatin form.
A new nuclear envelope forms around each
chromatin mass.
Nucleoli appear.
Eventually the miotic spindle breaks-up
4/30/2018 12
14. The final cellular division to form two new
cells.
In plants a cell plate forms along the line of
the metaphase plate; in animals there is a
constriction of the cytoplasm.
The cell then enters interphase - the interval
between mitotic divisions
4/30/2018 14
17. Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division
that produces haploid sex cells or gametes
from diploid cells (which contain two copies
of each chromosome).
The process takes the form of one DNA
replication followed by two successive nuclear
and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis
II).
As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a
process of DNA replication that converts each
chromosome into two sister chromatids
4/30/2018 17
18. In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the
cell from diploid to haploid
The homologous chromosomes pair and
exchange DNA to form recombinant
chromosomes. Prophase I is divided into five
phases
4/30/2018 18
19. Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: homologous chromosomes
become closely associated (synapsis) to form
pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) consisting
of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of
homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata
(sing. chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to
separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes
continue to separate, and chiasmata move to
the ends of the chromosomes
4/30/2018 19
20. Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes
attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores
4/30/2018 20
21. Homologous pairs of chromosomes
(bivalents) arranged as a double row along
the metaphase plate. (This is a source of
genetic variation through random
assortment, as the paternal and maternal
chromosomes in a homologous pair are
similar but not identical. The number of
possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the
number of chromosomes in a haploid set.
Human beings have 23 different
chromosomes, so the number of possible
combinations is 223, which is over 8 million.
4/30/2018 21
22. Anaphase I The homologous chromosomes in
each bivalent are separated and move to the
opposite poles of the cell
Telophase I The chromosomes become
diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms
4/30/2018 22
24. Meiosis II separates each chromosome into
two chromatids .
The events of Meiosis II are analogous to
those of a mitotic division, although the
number of chromosomes involved has been
halved.
4/30/2018 24
26. Cell division, cell differentiation and cell death are
the three principal physiological processes that
regulate tissue homoeostasis in multicellular
organisms
The importance of dysregulated cell cycle
progression and cell death in the pathogenesis of
major diseases, such as cancer,
ischemia/reperfusion injury, atherosclerosis,
infection, inflammation and neurological disorders,
is now well established
4/30/2018 26
27. Cell cycle activators
Cyclins
Cycle dependent kinases
Maturation promoting factor(MPF)
The anaphase promoting
complexcyclosome(APCC)
Cell cycle inhibitors
P53 Gene
P21 Gene
Rb gene
ATM
ATR
4/30/2018 27
These checkpoint signals stop the cell cycle transitions either by inhibiting
the activator or activating the inhibitor
28. The central machines that drive cell cycle
progression are the cyclin-dependent kinases
(CDKs).
These are serine/threonine protein kinases that
phosphorylate key substrates to promote DNA
synthesis and mitotic progression
4/30/2018 28
CDK1 and CDK2
• Binds to cyclins A, B, D, E.
CDK4 and CDK6
• Binds to cyclin D
29. G1 phase
D-type cyclins and CDK4 or CDK6
S phase
cyclin E–CDK2
G2 phase
cyclin A–CDK2 and cyclin A–CDK1
M phase
CDK1–cyclin B, A
4/30/2018 29
34. 4/30/2018 34
Cell cycle progression is further regulated by two classes of cell cycle
inhibitors
The INK4 proteins
including p16
(INK4a) and p15
(INK4b)
The Cip/Kip
family including
p21, p27 and
p57.
Specific cyclin–CDK complexes and cell
cycle at specific points
36. A checkpoint is one of several points in the
eukaryotic cell cycle at which the progression
of a cell to the next stage in the cycle can be
halted until conditions are favorable (e.g. the
DNA is repaired).
These checkpoints occur near the end of G1,
at the G2/M transition, and during metaphase
4/30/2018 36
37. G1 phase check points
G2 phase check point
M phase check point
4/30/2018 37
38. G1 be divided into 2 portions: G1-pm for G1-postmitotic, and G1-ps for
G1-pre-S
Whereas G1-pm is relatively constant, G1-ps is variable, and it is this
variability in the duration of G1-ps that contributes to much of the
confusion.
4/30/2018 38
40. The G2 checkpoint is an intricate signaling network
that regulates the progression of G2 to mitosis (M)
A node-based model of G2 checkpoint regulation, in
which the action of the central CDK1–cyclin B1 node is
determined by the concerted but opposing activities
of the Wee1 and cell division control protein 25C
(CDC25C) nodes
4/30/2018 40
42. During mitosis and meiosis, the spindle assembly checkpoint acts
to maintain genome stability by delaying cell division until
accurate chromosome segregation can be guaranteed.
Accuracy requires that chromosomes become correctly attached
to the microtubule spindle apparatus via their kinetochores.
When not correctly attached to the spindle, kinetochores activate
the spindle assembly checkpoint network, which in turn blocks
cell cycle progression.
Once all kinetochores become stably attached to the spindle, the
checkpoint is inactivated, which alleviates the cell cycle block and
thus allows chromosome segregation and cell division to proceed.
4/30/2018 42
43. The SAC is the most important mechanism of the mitotic
phase, and it ensures that anaphase will not occur until the
chromosomes are correctly aligned at the equatorial plate
In this sense, cell cycle regulators such as the CDK1-cyclin B
complex are important components of SAC
4/30/2018 43
44. Mitotic phase targeting disturbs mitosis in tumor cells, triggers the
spindle assembly checkpoint and frequently results in cell death
The first antimitotics to enter clinical trials aimed to target tubulin.
Although these drugs improved the treatment of certain cancers,
and many anti-microtubule compounds are already approved for
clinical use, severe adverse events such as neuropathies were
observed
Since then, efforts have been focused on the development of
drugs that also target kinases, motor proteins and multi-protein
complexes involved in mitosis
4/30/2018 44
46. 4/30/2018 46
• The abnormal expression of cell cycle regulators (activators
and inhibitors) can cause alteration of cell division leads to
different types of cancer
• As we known checkpoints plays a important role in cell cycle
progression through all the phases, it is novel target to treat
many of cancers
47. Cell death is the event of a biological cell
ceasing to carry out its functions.
Two types
Programmed cell death (PCD)
Necrosis – killing – non physiological death
48. Programmed cell death is cell death mediated
by an intracellular program
Two types:-
Apoptosis or Type I cell-death (major
importance)
Autophagy or Type II cell-death (minor
importance)
49. APOPTOSIS – It is a natural process, in which
a suicide program is activated within the cell
Fragmentation of DNA occurs
Cell shrinkage occurs
It is energy dependent process
Apoptotic body forms
DNA cleavage occurs
50. Apoptosis is voluntary – it is an alternative to
G0
However apoptosis is absolutely irreversible
51.
52. Two different pathways are involved
Intrinsic pathway or mitochondria mediated
death pathway
In this pathway the death inducing stimuli are
originated inside the target cell
53. Severe genetic damage
Lack of oxygen
Presence of viral proteins
High concentrations of cytosolic Ca++
Severe oxidatative stress
54. The intrinsic pathway is fascilated bcl2 family
proteins
which are characterized of one or more BH
Domain (bcl-2 Homology Domain)
Bcl-2 family proteins were classified into three
categories
Pro apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins for ex. Bax and Bak
Anti apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins for ex. Bcl-2, Bcl-
xL
BH3 only proteins
Caspases-
Caspase are a family of protease enzymes
playing essential roles in programmed cell death
56. When cell lost balance between Pro apoptotic and
anti apoptotic factors Bax is activated
Bax undergo conformational change and gets
inserted to outer mitochondrial membrane
It creates pore on outer mitochondrial membrane
which results in MOMP (mitochondrial outer
membrane permeation)
Cytochrome C is released through pores
MOMP is also accelerated by increased calcium
level in cytoplasm
SMAC (secondary mitochondria derived activator
of caspases) is released from mitochondria
57. SMAC binds with all anti apoptotic factors and
inactivate them
In cytoplasm cytochrome c binds with Apaf-1
(apoptotic protease activating factor) and pro
caspase9 in an ATP dependent manner to form
multi subunit complex
The multi subunit complex form apoptosome
Caspase9 is the initiator caspase which activates
the executioner caspase such as caspase 3 and 7
Activated caspase3 and caspase7 cleave its target
molecule in cell thus apototic cell death occur
58.
59. The extrinsic signaling pathway leading to apoptosis involves
transmembrane death receptors that are members of the tumor
necrosis factor (TNF) receptor gene superfamily
. Members of this receptor family bind to extrinsic ligands and
transduce intracellular signals that ultimately result in the
destruction of the cell.
The most well characterized ligands of these receptors are FasL,
TNF-alpha, Apo3L, and Apo2L. Corresponding receptors are
FasR, TNFR1, DR3, and DR4/DR5, respectively.
The binding of ligand to the receptors on the target cell triggers
receptor clustering on the cell surface. Which recruits the
adaptor proteins on the cytoplasmic site of the receptors,
forming death inducing signalling complex (DISC).
60. Formation of DISC brings procaspase
molecules close to one another, which
facilitates their autocatalytic activation and
release into the cytoplasm where they
activate caspase cascade.
Caspase8 is activated which is a initiator
caspase which further activates caspase3/6/7
which are executioar caspase
Once activated, the caspases affect several
cellular functions as part of a process that
results in the death of the cells.
61.
62. Active caspase-8 also mediates the cleavage of
proapoptotic protein, BID which subsequently releases
mitochondrial proapoptotic factors linking the two
pathways.
In case of intrinsic pathway, stress signal causes the
binding of cytoplasmic proteins, BAX and BID to the outer
membrane of mitochondria. Another mitochondrial
protein BAK interacts with BAX and BID causing release of
cytochrome c into the cytosol.
This binds to Apaf-1 which then forms apotosome that
triggers the activation of procaspase-9.
Activated caspase-9 further initiates the caspase cascade
leading to apoptosis.
Tumor suppressor p53 protein is a sensor of cellular
stress and play a vital role in initiating apoptosis by
transcriptionally activating proapoptotic proteins BID and
BAX
63.
64. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation
system that delivers cytoplasmic constituents
to the lysosome.
It is a normal process by which eukaryotic
cells break down out-dated and damaged
cellular organelles and proteins to be
replaced with new ones.
It is also a survival mechanism providing
cells with energy and substrates for cellular
processes in times of stress and starvation.
65. Autophagy is a multi-step process involving
initiation, formation of autophagosomes
(vesicles that capture and deliver cytoplasmic
material to lysosomes for digestion),
maturation, and degradation.
4/30/2018 65
66.
67. Recent studies have clearly demonstrated
that autophagy has a greater variety of
physiological and pathophysiological roles
than expected, such as starvation adaptation,
intracellular protein and organelle clearance,
development, anti-aging, elimination of
microorganisms, cell death, tumor
suppression, and antigen presentation
68. Necrosis is a form of cell injury which results in the
premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis.
Necrosis is caused by external factors to the cell or
tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma which
result in the unregulated digestion of cell
components.
Cause of Necrosis
Ischemia
Physical agent
Chemical agent
Immunological injury
69. Denaturation of intracellular proteins
Enzymatic digestion of the cell
72. Lewin's CELLS 3rd Edition by George
Plopper, David Sharp , Eric Sikorski published
by jones & bartlett.
Lee, W. H. et al. Human retinoblastoma
susceptibility gene: cloning, identification,
and sequence. Science 235, 1394–1399
(1987).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle