The document discusses important elements of parent-child interaction identified in research from the 1970s-1990s, including the behavioral repertoire of both the parent and child and the reciprocity that develops between them. It then examines research on parent-child interaction when the child has special needs or developmental risks. Key findings include that negative interaction patterns are more common in high-risk families, interaction varies according to the individual characteristics of the parent and child, and intervention efforts aim to facilitate mutually satisfying relationships through assessment and support of the parent-child dynamic.

1. ASSESSMENT CHILD-PARENT INTERACTION
ANNUSURIA A/P RAMADU PGF 100027
SITI RAFEAH BT MOHAMMAD DAUD PGF100028
AZALI B JUMAREN PGF100033

2. A. IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF PARENT-
CHILD INTERACTION
► Research on 1970s to 1990s has concentrated on the nature of
early parent-child interaction.
► Investigators have use variety of measurement tecniques to
identify the important elements in that interaction and child
competence.
► These elements include the behavioral repertoire of both the child
and the parent and the reciprocity that develops in an interaction as
both partners respond and adapt to one another.

3. Mother Infants
1. Parent must tune into the infant and
deal with differentially behavior
• crying behavior, soothability and
capacity to take in and synthesize
sensory stimuli.
• effect- to short and long range
adaptation to the environment.
2. Loving mother •One factor represented mothers who
were loving, attentive, skillful, and
emotionally involved; the infants shared
only one thing in common, accelerated
development.
•BEHAVIORAL REPERTOIRE OF CHILD AND PARENT
► Research showed that infants contribute their own unique behaviors to the
interaction.
► Early 1959 , Chees, Thomas, and Birch hypothesized about that various child-care
practice were determine not only mother feel and does but also by the specific
pattern of behavioral responses that characterize the individual child.

4. Mother Infants
3. Unresponsible mother • Their infants′ behaviors were similarly
lacking in purpose and plan.
4. Negative behaviors pattern ► There is evidence that negative pattern
of mother-child interaction are more likely
to occur in families that are high social risk
due to social or economic disadvantage.
5. Mothers in difficult circumstances
• low educational level
•Little support
•Multiple chronic problem
•High life strees
► Mothers interact less optimal than do
mothers who do not have such difficulties.

5. ► Spitz (1964) the new born cannot understand the parent′s inner processes;
therefore, the mother′s role is to interact in ways that demonstrate an
understanding of her baby′s behaviors.
►Stern (1984) discussed empathy as an important aspect of the parent-child
relationship, labeling this effect attunement, the ability to know what an other is
experiencing subjectively.
►Sander (1964) described the parent-infant relationship as a process
of adaptation. 5 stages in the first two years of a baby:
• Birth – 3 months ( modulation )
• 3 – 6 months (social effective)
• 6 – 9 months (initiative
• 9 -19 months ( focalization )
• Final stages after a year. Infants are free and independent.
•IMPORTANCE OF RECIPROCITY PARENT CHILD INTERACTION

6. ► Brazelton et al. (1974) studied that communication system that develops
between infants and their caregivers within the first few months of life.
► The strength of the independence of the dyads seems to be more powerful
in shaping each member′s behavior than coes any other factor.
► Thomas ( 1975) each baby has his or her own capabilities for providing cues
to the mother and that each mother has unique was of responding to her
baby.
► Barnard et al. (1989) Baby can react with the mother through the smile and
touch.
► The parent brings the ability and willingness to read and respond
appropriately to infant cues and a repertoire of behaviors to stimulate and
engage the infant.

7. ► Mother and child communication will vary according to the child's
development. (Belsky et al, 1984; Olson et al 1984)
► A study of intervention effects with low-birth-weight, premature
children by Liau, Meisels, and Brooks-Gun (1995) highlighted the
importance of examing parent and child joint involvement in
interaction activities.
► The best predictor of children′s one-to-three-year outcomes was
active experience, the combination of parental interest
interaction activities, and the child′s mastery of intervention
activities.

8. • Behavioral Repertoire of the Parent and the Child with Disabilities or the Child
Who Is At Risk.
► Richard (1986) reviewed the literature comparing infants without
disabilities and those with down syndrome and several infant
characteristics found evidence of significant differences temperament
and proximity to caregivers.
► Difficullities in mothers interaction among disabled infants
• Interactive behavior of the retarded.
• Difficult to understand the needs of children
• Mother difficulty in reading the children′s signals.
B. PARENT CHILD INTERACTION WHEN THE CHILD HAS SPECIAL NEEDS
► 1970S, Researchers had begun to examine the interaction of parent and children
when the child was disabled or at risk for developmental problem.

9. ► Premature infant
- less responsive
- less organization of sleep-wake activity
- pay less attentive to their mother
- appeared to have less fun
► Mental retarded child
- less frequently to their mother′s
► Disabled children
- less involved
- initiated less than half as many interactions as control children.

10. ► Spike et al. research demonstrates that reciprocity patterns vary according
to the individual characteristics of each mother and infants; that is,
mother of children with delay are not a homogeneous group.
► It is important to identify potential problems in the development of
reciprocity between mother and their delayed or at risk infant to examine
hoe these negotiation between parent and child continue or impede the
development process.
► fraiberg 1974 found only two mother were able to establish good
communication.
She explained that the infants with disabilities seemed to be less
responsive, to vocalize less, and to be slower than sighted children in
learning to localize objects by sound.
• RECIPROCITY IN DYADS WHEN THE CHILD HAS A DISABILITY OR IS AT RISK

11. ► Fraiberg′s intervention efforts sensitized parents to the subtle cues that blind
infants display in communication attempts.
► These intervention strategies were possible to use only after carefully observing
the infants′ specific behavioral cues. (e.g sign of pleasure, interest, discomfort, or
need).
► In normal interaction, turn taking increase with the developmental age of the
child while the relative frequency of simultaneous vocalization decrease, indicating
that turn –taking is the more appropriate from for the development of mature
communication.
► Infant with down syndrome and nondisabled infants with their mother during the
first six months of life.
►Their data suggest that there is an increasing age related trend toward vocal
″classing″ turn taking in the interaction between infant with down syndrome and their
mother compare to dyads without disabled infants.

12. ► Vietze et al 1978 studied infants with and without delay and identified a
different pattern of maternal behavior.
• Result for the delayed and non delayed group at 1 years of age were strikingly
similar, in that both showed a great deal of reciprocal vocal interaction.
► A mother stimulating behavior can best be defined as overstimulating,
overcontrolling , or over dominating it it results in subtle or potent disengagement
cues from the infant.
► Parent observations of the infants immature systems and lower states of arousal
may lead to maladaptive responses on the part of the parent.
► It is important to conceptualize parent-child assessment as an on-going process
intervention efforts.
► As the developing child matures, parent should recognize changing cues and
adjust their behavior and interactions accordingly.

13. •PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION IN FAMILIES AT RISK FOR ENVIORONMENTAL
REASONS
1 • Low maternal intelligence
2 • Low maternal educational achievement
3 • Maternal depression
4 • Low sell esteem
5 • Low maternal age at time of child′s birth
4 • Large family size
4 • Poverty
•Environmental Characteristic
► Children exposed to several risk factors at the same time are especially
vulnerable to developing learning or behavioral difficulties (Dubow & Luster 1990)

14. Environmental Reason Effect
• Mother from Low sosioeconomi • Less stimulating and less responsive
• More restrictive and controlling
• Adolescent mothers • less verbally expressive
• less sensitive
• express less positive affect
• more frequently endorse
punitive child-rearing attitudes
• showing more negative effect
• Family with deficit psychosocial • Restrict the mother emotional
avaibility and skill is responding to her
infant.
• Parent with Cognitive deficit • Difficulties providing stimulating
home environment and interacting in
developmentally appropriate and
nurturing ways.

15. APPROACHES TO ASSESSING EARLY PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION
1.Used to advance empirical
knowledge about importance
& nature of interaction.
to design & evaluate
intervention effort
The issues
a) Setting
b) Contextual
Recommendation
Incorporating
assessment information
into intervention efforts
designed to facilitate
mutually satisfying
parent child interaction
1. Important assessment approaches
2. Discuss about

16. THE SETTING
Kelly et al. (1996) suggest home setting is optimal place for assessing needs
to develop appropriate intervention goal that include restructuring the
physical environment & family routines
For intervention purpose
-Build rapport with family to
observe spontaneous, talk
normally to get information used
in ongoing intervention plan
Assessment Period
-2 home visit ( observe & interact
with family)
- clinic session ( collect information)
Method
- combination of interview &
home observation that involve
the mother
Berman & Shaw (1996) some families are comfortable with professionals coming to their
homes, other parents may prefer to meet at program site. Its important for families to
have choice in setting, timing personal for all assessment experience

17. THE CONTEXT
- In which observation are made can have a substantial impact on how
parents & infant behave ( Mahoney, Spiker & Boyce 1996)
- The length of observation may contributes different outcomes between
parent-infant dyad & the person handling observation
For intervention purpose
-view as 1st step in treatment
process
Assessment period
-5 or 4 week period
-include interview mother
revealing the mothers
historical perspective on
mothering & her current view
of her baby & their interaction
Its important to observe behaviors as they occur naturally within a broad array
situations with an observer who has already established rapport & trust with the
parent & child.

18. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ASSESMENT OF PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION
1. RECOGNIZE THE IMPORANCE OE THE PARENT-PROFESIONAL RELATIONSHIOP
2. DETERMINE WHAT ASSISTANCE NEEDED
3.ASSES INDIVIDUAL PARENT & CHILD CHARACTHERISTICS & RECIPROCITY
4. RESPECT INDIVIDUAL VALUES & PREFERENCE
5. USE AN APPROACH IN WHICH THE PARENT REMAINS IN CONTACT WITH CHILD
6. USE A JOINT PARENT-PROFESIONAL ASSESMENT PROCESS
7. EMPHASIZE THE POSITIVE
8. MAKE ASSESSMENT ONGOING PROCESS

19. RECOGNIZE IMPORTANCE OF PARENT-PROFESIONAL RELATIONSHIP
Professional Attitudes
• Emphatic & responsive (ability to listen primary
concern, validate their importance & help parents
access other services).
Human connectedness
• No personal relationship (may develop sense of
trust/share feeling & observation & develop treatment
plans)

20. DETERMINE WHAT ASSISTANCE NEEDED
1st
• Listen to the primary concern
• Help with the concern
• Focus on parent-child interaction
2nd
• Should be prepared to recognize & support relationship that are
filled with sensitive, responsive & growth promoting interaction.
3rd
• Should assist when symptoms appear that are disruptive in daily
life

21. ASSESS INDIVIDUAL PARENT & CHILD CHARACTERISTICS &
RECIPROCITY.
Focus attention in assessment practices
• Specifically, parent & child initiating & responding behavior should
be examined, as well as the contingency & mutuality present in
the interaction.
Observe the child’s attempts to self regulate
What is the degree of compatibility between parent-
child

22. RESPECT INDIVIDUAL VALUES PREFERENCE
Hanson, Lynch & Wayman(1990) discussed 4 critical elements for
developing respect for individual cultural difference
• Clarification of the interventionist own values & assumption
• Collection analysis of ethnographic information related to the community in
which the family resides.
• Determination of the degree to which the family operates transculturally
• Examination of the family orientation to specific child-rearing issues
Communication skills
• Ability to respect individual differences, open mindedness & flexibility to parents
Child experience must be understood within the cultural context
of the child & family (Greenspan & Meisels ,1996)

23. USE AN APPROACH IN WHICH THE PARENT REMAINS IN CONTACT WITH THE
CHILD
PARENT CHILDINTERACTION
PROFESIONAL
Give
information
about their
child
Assessment
&
intervention

24. PARENT PROFESIONALASSESSEMENT
Discussion
Information from
the parent
Ask parent
Videotape
Parent-child
interaction
USE A JOINT PARENT-PROFESSIONAL ASSESMENT PROCESS

25. • To avoid cultural bias & mistaken assumptionInformation
• Parent description of the child abilities & developmental the
observations of the child within the family context ,Greenspan
& Meisels (1996)
• Can identify ways parents have found to support their child as
well as interactional patterns that are of concern to them
Discussion
• Parent view of their baby/ what parent think about relationship
with the baby/how professional can help
• Avoid jargon/question with genuine interest/reaching hasty
conclusion that may be based on their own biases
Asked
• parent comment on the positive aspects of interaction, controls
the pace, adding information about relationship their choose.
• Professional add input & concentrate positive aspects .
Videotape

26. EMPHASIZE THE POSITIVE
Feedback
• About interaction should be as positive &
nonjudgmental
• During child-parent interaction should be sensitively
paced, in which the parent behavioral cues used as
feedback
Information
• About child development should be given by the
context of the interaction
• Avoid authoritarian perspective

27. MAKE ASSESMENT AN ONGOING PROCESS
The parental needs & the parent-child
relationship can change over time
• Professional should continue to check with the parent
about their perceptions of what is happening
• be a close observer of behavioral change during
intervention & how such changes may affect the
relationship.