These slides were used for discussion in B. Pharmacy 2nd year Pharmacotherapy theory class. Students are suggested to refer textbooks for further information.
This presentation deals with the use of various drugs in the treatment of heart failure such as Digoxin, ace inhibitors, beta bloockers, calcium channel blockers
These slides were used for discussion in B. Pharmacy 2nd year Pharmacotherapy theory class. Students are suggested to refer textbooks for further information.
This presentation deals with the use of various drugs in the treatment of heart failure such as Digoxin, ace inhibitors, beta bloockers, calcium channel blockers
Announcement about my previous presentations - Thank youAreej Abu Hanieh
ANNOUNCEMENT Thank you for all of you, my followers who sent me messages with a lot of love and appreciations, I finally graduated after 6 years of studying in Birzeit University , In doctor of Pharmacy department I hope all of you benefited from all the presentations posted before Thank you a new PharmD GraduatedAreej ^^
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
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NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
2. Normal conduction
• Electrical activity is initiated by the sinoatrial (SA) node and moves
through cardiac tissue .
• SA initiate cardiac rhythm because this tissue possesses the
highest degree of automaticity.
• It is highly affectd by cholinergic and sympathetic system .
• From the SA node, electrical activity moves to the ventricle via the
AV node to the bundle of His. The conducting tissues bridging the
atria and ventricles are referred to as the junctional areas. Again,
this area of tissue (junction) is largely influenced by autonomic input.
• From the bundle of His, the cardiac conduction system bifurcates
into several (usually three) bundle branches: one right bundle and
two left bundles. These bundle branches further arborize into a
conduction network referred to as the Purkinje system.
2
4. • When the cell is being polarized , the sodium-potassium
pump attempts to maintain the intracellular sodium
concentration at 5 to 15 mEq/L and the extracellular
sodium concentration at 135 to 142 mEq/L, as well as
the intracellular potassium concentration at 135 to 140
mEq/L and the extracellular potassium concentration at 3
to 5 mEq/L.
4
7. • Some tissues depolarize in response to a slower inward ionic
current caused by calcium influx.
• These “calcium-dependent” tissues are found primarily in the
SA and AV nodes (both L and T channels) and possess
distinct conduction properties in comparison to “sodium-
dependent” fibers.
• Calcium-dependent cells generally have a less negative RMP
(–40 to –60 mV) and a slower conduction velocity.
• in calcium-dependent tissues, recovery of excitability outlasts
full repolarization, whereas in sodium-dependent tissues,
recovery is prompt after repolarization.
• Activation of SA and AV nodal tissue is dependent on a slow
depolarizing current through calcium channels and gates,
whereas the activation of atrial and ventricular tissues is
dependent on a rapid depolarizing current through sodium
channels and gates.
7
8. Abnormal conduction
• The mechanisms of tachyarrhythmias have been
classically divided into two general categories:
• those resulting from an abnormality in impulse
generation or “automatic” tachycardias .
• and those resulting from an abnormality in impulse
conduction or “reentrant” tachycardias.
8
9. • The increased slope of phase 4 causes heightened
automaticity of these tissues and competition with the SA
node for dominance of cardiac rhythm.
• Automatic tachycardias have the following
characteristics:
• (a) the onset of the tachycardia is unrelated to an
initiating event such as a premature beat;
• (b) the initiating beat is usually identical to subsequent
beats of the tachycardia;
• (c) the tachycardia cannot be initiated by programmed
cardiac stimulation;
• (d) the onset of the tachycardia is usually preceded by a
gradual acceleration in rate and termination is usually
preceded by a gradual deceleration in rate
9
13. • EADs provoked by drugs that block potassium
conductance and delay repolarization are the underlying
cause of TdP.
• LADs may be precipitated by digoxin or catecholamines
and suppressed by CCBs, and have been suggested as
the mechanism for multifocal atrial tachycardia, digoxin-
induced tachycardias, and exercise-provoked VT.
13
17. Class Ia AADs
• The class Ia AADs, quinidine, procainamide, and
disopyramide, slow conduction velocity, prolong
refractoriness, and decrease the automatic properties of
sodium-dependent conduction tissue.
• Although class Ia AADs are primarily considered sodium
channel blockers.
• In reentrant tachycardias, these drugs generally depress
conduction and prolong refractoriness, theoretically
transforming the area of unidirectional block into a
bidirectional block.
• Clinically, class Ia drugs are broad-spectrum AADs that are
effective for both supraventricular and ventricular
arrhythmias.
17
18. Class Ib AADs
• The class Ib AADs, lidocaine, mexiletine, and phenytoin.
• In normal tissue models, lidocaine generally facilitates
actions on cardiac conduction by shortening refractoriness
and having little effect on conduction velocity.
• Thus, it was postulated that these agents could improve
antegrade conduction, eliminating the area of unidirectional
block.
• Lidocaine and similar agents have accentuated effects in
ischemic tissue caused by the local acidosis and potassium
shifts that occur during cellular hypoxia.
• The class Ib AADs are considerably more effective in
ventricular arrhythmias than supraventricular arrhythmias
18
19. Class Ic AADs
• The class Ic AADs, propafenone and flecainide, are
extremely potent sodium channel blockers.
• profoundly slowing conduction velocity while leaving
refractoriness relatively unaltered.
• The class Ic AADs theoretically eliminate reentry by
slowing conduction to a point where the impulse is
extinguished and cannot propagate further.
• Although the class Ic AADs are effective for both
ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias, but limited
to use due to the risk of proarrythmia .
19
20. Several principles are inherent in antiarrhythmic
sodium channel receptor theories:
• Class I AADs have predominant affinity for a particular state of
the channel (eg, during activation or inactivation). For
example, lidocaine and flecainide block sodium current
primarily when the cell is in the inactivated state, whereas
quinidine is predominantly an open (or activated)-channel
blocker.
• Class I AADs have specific binding and unbinding
characteristics to the receptor. For example, lidocaine binds to
and dissociates from the channel receptor quickly (“fast on-
off”) but flecainide has very “slow on-off” properties. This
explains why flecainide has such potent effects on slowing
ventricular conduction, whereas lidocaine has little effect on
normal tissue (at normal heart rates). In general, the class Ic
AADs are “slow on-off,” the class Ib AADs are “fast on-off,”
and the class Ia AADs are intermediate in their binding
kinetics.
20
21. • Class I AADs possess rate dependence (ie, sodium channel
blockade and slowed conduction are greatest at fast heart
rates and least during bradycardia). For “slow on-off” drugs,
sodium channel blockade is evident at normal rates (60-100
beats/min), but for “fast on-off” agents, slowed conduction is
only apparent at fast heart rates.
• Class I AADs (except phenytoin) are weak bases with a
pKa greater than 7 and block the sodium channel in their
ionized form. Consequently, pH will alter these actions:
acidosis accentuates and alkalosis diminishes sodium
channel blockade.
21
22. • Class I AADs appear to share a single receptor site in
the sodium channel. For instance, quinidine has potent
potassium channel blocking activity (manifests
predominantly at low concentrations) as does N-
acetylprocainamide (manifests predominantly at high
concentrations), the primary metabolite of procainamide.
Additionally propafenone has β-blocking actions.
• These principles are important in understanding additive
drug combinations (eg, quinidine and mexiletine).
• antagonistic combinations (eg, flecainide and lidocaine).
• potential antidotes to excess sodium channel blockade
(sodium bicarbonate).
22
23. Class II AADs
• β-Adrenergic stimulation results in increased conduction
velocity, shortened refractoriness, and increased
automaticity of the nodal tissues.
• In the nodal tissues, β-blockers interfere with calcium
entry into the cell by altering catecholamine-dependent
channel integrity and gating kinetics.
• In sodium-dependent atrial and ventricular tissues, β-
blockers shorten repolarization somewhat but otherwise
have little direct effect.
• The antiarrhythmic properties of β-blockers observed
with long-term.
• β-blockers decrease the likelihood of SCD (presumably
arrhythmic death) after MI.
23
24. Class III AADs
• The class III AADs includes amiodarone, dronedarone,
sotalol, ibutilide, and dofetilide.
• these drugs share the common effect of delaying
repolarization by blocking potassium channels , that
specifically prolong refractoriness in atrial and ventricular
tissues.
• Amiodarone and sotalol are effective in most supraventricular
and ventricular arrhythmias.
• Amiodarone and dronedarone displays electrophysiologic
characteristics of all four Vaughan Williams classes; it is a
sodium channel blocker with relatively “fast on-off” kinetics,
has nonselective β-blocking actions, blocks potassium
channels, and also has a small degree of calcium channel
blocking activity .
24
25. • amiodarone has low proarrhythmic potential.
• Sotalol is a potent inhibitor of outward potassium movement
during repolarization and also possesses nonselective β-
blocking actions.
• dronedarone, ibutilide, and dofetilide are only approved for
the treatment of supraventricular arrhythmias.
• Both ibutilide (only available IV) and dofetilide (only available
orally) can be used for the acute conversion of AF or AFl to
SR.
• Dofetilide can also be used to maintain SR in patients with AF
or AFl of longer than 1 week’s duration who have been
converted to SR.
• Dronedarone is approved to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
(CV) hospitalization in patients with a history of paroxysmal or
persistent AF who are currently in SR.
25
26. Class IV ADDs
• The non-DHP CCBs, verapamil and diltiazem.
• two types of calcium channels are operative in SA and AV
nodal tissues: an L-type channel and a T-type channel. Both L
and T -type channel blockers (verapamil and diltiazem).
• They cause slow conduction, prolong refractoriness, and
decrease automaticity (eg, due to EADs or LADs) of the
calcium-dependent tissue in the SA and AV nodes.
• these agents are effective in automatic or reentrant
tachycardias which arise from or use the SA or AV nodes.
• In supraventricular arrhythmias (eg, AF or AFl), these drugs
can slow ventricular response by slowing AV nodal conduction.
26
29. Amiodarone Adverse
effects
• Amiodarone is a substrate of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4
isoenzyme, a moderate inhibitor of many CYP isoenzymes
(eg, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, CYP3A4), and a P-glycoprotein (P-
gp) inhibitor.
• By inhibiting P-gp, amiodarone can increase digoxin
concentrations by approximately 2-fold; therefore, the digoxin
dose should be empirically reduced by 50% when amiodarone
is initiated.
• By inhibiting CYP2C9 and CYP3A4, amiodarone can increase
warfarin concentrations and the international normalized ratio
(INR). Consequently, when amiodarone and warfarin are
initiated concurrently, warfarin should be started at a dose of
2.5 mg daily. When amiodarone is initiated in a patient already
receiving warfarin, the warfarin dose should be reduced by
approximately 30%.
29
30. • Through inhibition of P-gp, amiodarone can also
increase concentrations of dabigatran, the use of
dabigatran should be avoided in these patients who are
receiving amiodarone.
• Severe bradycardia, QT prolongation, hyperthyroidism,
hypothyroidism, peripheral neuropathy, gastrointestinal
discomfort, photosensitivity, and a blue-gray skin
discoloration on exposed areas are common. Fulminant
hepatitis (uncommon) and pulmonary fibrosis, optic
neuropathy/neuritis which can lead to blindness.
30
34. Atrial Fibrillation and
Atrial Flutter
• AF is characterized by extremely rapid (atrial rate of 400 to
600 beats/min) and disorganized atrial activation , causing the
ventricular response to be considerably slower (120 to 180
beats/min) than the atrial rate. It is sometimes stated that “AF
begets AF,” .
• acute AF (onset within 48 hours).
• paroxysmal AF (terminates spontaneously in less than 7
days).
• recurrent AF (two or more episodes).
• persistent AF (duration longer than 7 days and does not
terminate spontaneously).
• permanent AF (does not terminate with attempts at
pharmacologic or electrical cardioversion).
34
35. • Symptomes : Most often, patients complain of rapid
heart rate/palpitations and/or worsening symptoms of HF
(dyspnea, fatigue). Medical emergencies are severe HF
(ie, pulmonary edema, hypotension) or AF occurring in
the setting of acute MI.
• Diagnostic : AF is an irregularly irregular
supraventricular rhythm. Ventricular rate is usually 120 to
180 beats/min and the pulse is irregular.
• AFl is (usually) a regular supraventricular rhythm with
characteristic flutter waves reflecting more organized
atrial activity. Commonly, the ventricular rate is in factors
of 300 beats/min (eg, 150, 100, or 75 beats/min).
35
36. Cardiac ablation is a procedure
to scar or destroy tissue in your
heart that's allowing incorrect
electrical signals to cause an
abnormal heart rhythm.
36
37. • TABLE 18-8Evidence-
Based Pharmacologic Treatment Recommendations for
Controlling Ventricular Rate, Restoring Sinus Rhythm, an
d Maintaining Sinus Rhythm in Patients with Atrial Fibrilla
tion .
• PDF file
37
38. Paroxysmal Supraventricular
Tachycardia Caused by Reentry
• This arrhythmia can be transient, resulting in little, if any,
symptoms.
• Symptomes : Patients frequently complain of intermittent
episodes of rapid heart rate/palpitations that abruptly start and
stop, usually without provocation. Severe symptoms include
syncope. Often (in particular, those with AV nodal reentry).
• Life-threatening symptoms (syncope, hemodynamic collapse)
are associated with an extremely rapid heart rate (eg, greater
than 200 beats/min) and AF associated with an accessory AV
pathway.
• Diagnostic : PSVT is a rapid, narrow QRS tachycardia
(regular in rhythm) that starts and stops abruptly. Atrial
activity, although present, is difficult to ascertain on surface
ECG because P waves are “buried” in the QRS complex or T
wave.
38
39. ACUTE TREATMENT
• hemodynamic instability (eg, severe hypotension,
angina, or pulmonary edema). In these situations, direct
current cardioversion (DCC) is indicated as first-line
therapy .
• AFl often requires relatively low energy levels of
countershock (ie, 50 joules [J]), whereas AF often
requires higher energy levels (ie, greater than 200 J).
39
41. • hemodynamically stable : the focus should be directed
toward controlling the patient’s ventricular rate .
• The selection of a drug to control ventricular rate in the
acute setting should be primarily based on the patient’s
LV function.
• The goal of heart rate is less than 80 beats/min at rest
and less than 100 beats/min during exercise.
41
42. • Patients with normal LV function (LVEF greater than 40%) :
IV β-blocker (propranolol, metoprolol, esmolol) or non-DHP
CCB (diltiazem or verapamil) is recommended as first-line
therapy.
• All of these drugs have proven efficacy in controlling the
ventricular rate in patients with AF.
• Propranolol and metoprolol can be administered as
intermittent IV boluses, whereas esmolol (because of its very
short half-life of 5 to 10 minutes) must be administered as a
series of loading doses followed by a continuous infusion.
• verapamil or diltiazem can be given as an initial IV bolus
followed by a continuous infusion.
• When adequate ventricular rate control cannot be achieved
with one of these drugs, the addition of digoxin may result in
an additive lowering of the heart rate.
42
43. • oral amiodarone can be used as alternative therapy to
control the heart rate.
• IV amiodarone can also be used in patients who are
refractory to or have contraindications to β-blockers,
non-DHP CCBs, and digoxin.
• Patients who are having an exacerbation of HF
symptoms, IV administration of either digoxin or
amiodarone should be used as first-line therapy to
achieve ventricular rate control .
43
44. Non Acute treatment
• Electrical or pharmacologic cardioversion should be
considered for : patients with AF who remain
symptomatic despite having adequate ventricular rate
control .
• for those patients in whom adequate ventricular rate
control cannot be achieved.
• patients who are experiencing their first episode of AF if
they are likely to convert to and remain in SR .
44
45. • The risk of thrombus formation and a subsequent embolic
event increases if the duration of the AF exceeds 48 hours.
• Because of that : AF lasting at least 48 hours or more,
therapeutic anticoagulation with warfarin (INR target range 2
to 3), apixaban, dabigatran, or rivaroxaban should be given
for at least 3 weeks before cardioversion is performed.
• DOING transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) , AND If no
thrombus is observed on TEE, the patient can undergo
cardioversion and it should be performed within 24 hours of
the TEE .
• After the cardioversion.
• Anticoagulant should be continued for at least 4 weeks,
regardless of the patient’s baseline risk of stroke.
• Decisions regarding long-term antithrombotic therapy after
this 4-week time period should be primarily based on the
patient’s risk for stroke and not on whether he/she is in SR.
(CHA2DS2-VASc risk scoring system) .
45
46. AADs for cardioversion
• No underlying SHD(eg, LV dysfunction, CAD, valvular
heart disease, LV hypertrophy) : flecainide, propafenone,
ibutilide, dronedarone, or sotalol should be considered
initially for those patients.
• patients with HFrEF (LVEF ≤40%) : amiodarone or
dofetilide should be considered the AADs of choice.
46
47. Restoration of sinus
rhythm
• The “pill-in-the-pocket” approach with flecainide or
propafenone can be used to terminate persistent AF on
an outpatient basis once the treatment has been used
safely in the hospital, in patients without sinus or AV
node dysfunction, bundle-branch block, QT interval
prolongation, or SHD
• Dofetilide(po) should not be initiated on an outpatient
basis , monitoring qt interval .
• Ibutilide (iv) : need hospitalization , QT monitoring .
47
48. long-term therapy
• There are two forms of therapy that the clinician must
consider in each patient with AF:
1. long-term antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke.
2. long-term AADs to prevent recurrences of AF (RATE
CONTROL OR RHYTHIM CONTROL ).
48
50. • Patients with : score of 2 or higher are considered to be at
high risk for stroke , oral anticoagulant therapy with warfarin
(INR target range 2 to 3), apixaban, dabigatran, edoxaban, or
rivaroxaban is preferred over aspirin.
• Patients with score of 1 are considered to be at intermediate
risk for stroke. In these patients, oral anticoagulant therapy
(warfarin [INR target range 2 to 3], apixaban, dabigatran,
edoxaban, or rivaroxaban), aspirin 75 to 325 mg/day, or no
antithrombotic therapy can be selected.
• Patients with score of 0 are considered to be at low risk for
stroke not give any antithrombotic therapy.
50
51. long-term therapy
• AADs to prevent recurrences of AF :
• Rate control is the first line . If no SHD :Beta blocker or
CCB, then add digoxin then amiodarone .
• If SHD :beta blocker (evidence base ) then add digoxin
then add amiodarone .
• AAD to maintain SR should be primarily based on
whether the patient has SHD. However, other factors,
including renal and hepatic function, concomitant
disease states and drugs, and the AAD’s side effect
profile
51
52. • No underlying SHD : dofetilide, dronedarone, flecainide,
propafenone, or sotalol should be considered initially for
those patients.
• Atients with HFrEF (LVEF ≤40%) : amiodarone or
dofetilide should be considered the AADs of choice.
52
53. Notes
• In the presence of SHD, flecainide and propafenone
should be avoided because of the risk of proarrhythmia.
• Dronedarone should not be used to control the
ventricular rate in patients with permanent AF.
53
54. Ventricular Arrhythmias
• PVCs - Premature Ventricular Complexes
• PVCs are non-life-threatening and usually asymptomatic.
Occasionally, patients will complain of palpitations or
uncomfortable heartbeats. Since the PVC, by definition,
occurs early and the ventricle contracts when it is
incompletely filled, patients do not feel the PVC. Rather,
the next beat (after the PVC and a compensatory pause)
is usually responsible for the patient’s symptoms.
•
54
55. Treatment
• asymptomatic PVCs should not be made with any AAD.
• those patients who are at risk for arrhythmic death
(recent MI, LV dysfunction, complex PVCs) should
also not be routinely given any class I or III AAD.
• If these patients have symptomatic PVCs, chronic drug
therapy should be limited to the use of β-blockers.
• The use of β-blockers in post-MI patients is associated
with a reduction in the incidence of total mortality and
SCD, especially in the presence of LV dysfunction.
• β-Blockers can also be used in patients without
underlying SHD to suppress symptomatic PVCs.
55
56. Ventricular Tachycardia
• The symptoms of VT (monomorphic VT or TdP), if
prolonged (ie, sustained), can vary from nearly
completely asymptomatic to pulseless, hemodynamic
collapse. Fast heart rates and underlying poor LV
function will result in more severe symptoms. Symptoms
of nonsustained, self-terminating VT also correlate with
duration of episodes (eg, patients with 15-second
episodes will be more symptomatic than those with
three-beat episodes).
56
57. • On ECG, VT may appear as repetitive monomorphic or
polymorphic ventricular complexes. The definition of VT
is three or more consecutive PVCs occurring at a rate
greater than 100 beats/min. An acute episode of VT may
be precipitated by severe electrolyte abnormalities
(hypokalemia or hypomagnesemia), hypoxia, or digoxin
toxicity, or (most commonly) may occur in patients
presenting with acute MI or myocardial ischemia
complicated by HF.
57
58. • If severe symptoms are present (ie, severe hypotension,
angina, pulmonary edema), synchronized DCC should
be delivered immediately to attempt to restore SR.
• The diagnosis of acute MI should always be entertained.
If the episode of VT is thought to be an isolated electrical
event associated with a transient initiating factor (such
as acute myocardial ischemia or digoxin toxicity), there is
no need for long-term AAD therapy once the precipitating
factors are corrected .
58
59. • Patients presenting with an acute episode of VT (with a
pulse) associated with only mild symptoms can be
initially treated with AADs.
• IV procainamide, amiodarone, or sotalol can be
considered in this situation. Lidocaine can be considered
as an alternative. In one small study, procainamide was
shown to be superior to lidocaine in terminating VT.
59
60. THE IMPLANTABLE CARDIOVERTER-
DEFIBRILLATOR
• Modern ICDs now employ a “tiered-therapy approach,”
meaning that overdrive pacing (ie, antitachycardia
pacing) can be attempted first to terminate the
tachyarrhythmia (no painful shock delivered), followed by
low-energy cardioversion, and, finally, by high-energy
defibrillation shocks.
60
62. • many patients (as high as 70%) with ICDs end up
receiving concomitant AAD therapy (usually amiodarone
or sotalol). AADs can be initiated in these patients for a
number of reasons, including (a) decreasing the
frequency of VT/VF episodes to subsequently reduce the
frequency of appropriate shocks; (b) reducing the rate of
VT so that it can be terminated with antitachycardia
pacing; and (c) decreasing episodes of concomitant
supraventricular arrhythmias (eg, AF, AFl) that may
trigger inappropriate shocks.
62
Editor's Notes
If SA node become slower than AV node the automoasity will go to AV
Purkinje fiber action potential showing specific ion flux responsible for the change in membrane potential. Ions outside of the line (eg, sodium) move from the extracellular space to the intracellular space and ions on the inside of the line (eg, potassium) move from the inside of the cell to the outside.
Increase slope cause reaching to the threshold faster ..so cause tachycardia
selective T-type channel blockers (mibefradil was previously approved but withdrawn from the market) .
These arrhythmias are usually not directly life-threatening and do not generally cause hemodynamic collapse or syncope; 1:1 AFl (ventricular response approximately 300 beats/min) is an exception. Also, patients with underlying forms of heart disease who are heavily reliant on atrial contraction to maintain adequate cardiac output (eg, mitral stenosis, obstructive cardiomyopathy) display more severe symptoms of AF or AFl.
managment
In patients with HFrEF (LVEF less than or equal to 40%), both IV diltiazem and verapamil should be avoided because of their potent negative inotropic effects. IV β-blockers should be used with caution in this patient population and should be avoided if patients are in the midst of an episode of decompensated HF.
IV amiodarone can also be used in patients who are refractory to or have contraindications to β-blockers, non-DHP CCBs, and digoxin.
(Note: AV node must be adequately blocked with β-blocker or non-DHP CCB therapy before initiating this therapy).
An AAD should not be continued when the AF becomes permanent.