Aristotle was a Greek philosopher from the 4th century BC who made seminal contributions to many fields including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and literary criticism. He wrote Poetics, considered the first work of literary theory, which analyzed Greek tragedy and established principles for understanding dramatic art. In Poetics, Aristotle defines tragedy as an imitation of action that arouses pity and fear through catharsis. He identifies six elements of tragedy - plot, character, diction, thought, melody, and spectacle - and describes how they work together to achieve the desired emotional effect. Aristotle's analysis of tragedy set the standard for dramatic criticism for centuries.

1. ARISTOTLE
(384-322 BC)
Dr. Nagendra Shreeniwas
Assistant Professor
DR&CCL, University of Calicut

2. Aristotle
• Greek Philosopher from the 4th Century BC
• Most brilliant student of Plato & teacher of
Alexander the Great
• Contributed immensely in the fields of
metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, literary
criticism, natural sciences etc.
• Credited with writing the first text on theory of
drama – tragedy.
• Wrote his famous work on criticism – Poetics

3. Aristotle’s Poetics
• Aristotle’s Poetics is not only the most important
critical work of classical antiquity, it is also perhaps
the most influential work in the entire history of
criticism.
• It marks the beginning of literary criticism
▫ The beginning of critical analysis and
▫ The discovery of principles by which analysis can
proceed
• The Poetics is the best way to understand the Greek
art generally.

4. Aristotle’s Poetics…
• At the core of Poetics there are two complex
notions:
▫ Imitation & Action
• Poetry is essentially a mode of imitation (Like
Plato)
• (Unlike Plato) Imitation is of positive significance;
▫ it’s a basic human instinct; and
▫ a pleasurable way to knowledge
• We learn through imitation & take pleasure in it.
• Humans have an instinct for harmony/rhythm

5. Two types of Lexis
• Plato in Republic distinguishes between
▫ Logos: What is said
▫ Lexis: the way of saying it
• Aristotle allows only two types of lexis:
▫ Diegesis: Narration where the poet speaks in his
own person or through a character
▫ Mimesis: Dramatic representation, where the
story is performed and acted out

6. History & Poetry
History Poetry
Narrates events that
have actually happen
Portrays events such as
might occur… in accordance
with the laws of probability
or necessity
Deals with particular
/ individuals
Expresses what is universal
Gives particular facts
& events
Yields general truths

7. Contrast between poetry & history
• It is not the function of the poet to narrate events that
have actually happen, but rather “events such as
might occur… in accordance with the laws of
probability or necessity”
• Poetry is more “philosophical” & “serious” than
history because poetry expresses what is universal,
while history merely deals with individuals
• Poetry yields general truths while history gives
particular facts & events
• Poetry expresses the inner structure of probability or
causality which shapes events and, as such, is
universalizable and applicable to other sets of events.

8. Poetry is Imitation
• All various modes of poetry & music are
imitations
• These imitations can differ in 3 ways:
▫ In the means used
▫ In the kind of objects represented and
▫ In the manner of presentation
“The essential characteristics of poetry is
imitation, in which all human beings take
pleasure” (Poetics)

9. Imitation…
• Modes of Imitation differ in 3 ways:
▫ Medium (means), object, structure (manner)
• MEDIUM: rhythm, language, harmony
• OBJECT: Men in action are objects of imitation
• MANNER: narration/action

10. Poetry is imitation of human action
• Art imitates human action
▫ Action has a moral end or purpose
• Art imitates human action
▫ But human action must have its ultimate purpose
“the Supreme God”
• The actions imitated must be either noble or base
▫ Tragedy represents men as better than the norm
▫ Comedy represents men as worse than the norm

11. Poetic imitation…
• Later in Poetics, Aristotle broadens his notion of poetic
imitation.
• He says, that the poet must imitate in one of three ways. He
must imitate:
▫ Things that were,
▫ Things that are now or things that people say & think to be,
or
▫ Things which ought to be
• The poet should represent an ideal state of affairs
• The poet should have an appeal to conventional opinions.
“Truth is not beyond human nature”
(Aristotle in Rhetoric)

12. Aristotle’s view on Tragedy
• “Tragedy is, then, an imitation of an action that
is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude –
by means of language enriched with all kinds of
ornament, each used separately in the different
parts of the play: it represents men in action and
does not use narrative, and through pity and fear
it effects relief to these and similar emotions.”
(Poetics, VI.2-3)

13. Greek tragedy
 The word tragedy literally means "goat song"
 probably referring to the practice of giving a goat as a
sacrifice or a prize at the religious festivals in honor of
the god Dionysos.
 Everyone knew the story
 The plays were performed by men wearing
masks.
 The plays told particular stories with a universal
application.
 The masks helped to universalize the
particular.

16. Masks used in Greek Tragedy

18. Structure of a tragedy
• TRAGEDY is the “Imitation of an action that is
complete, whole and of a certain magnitude.”
▫ unity of plot
▫ express the universal [history expresses the
particular]
▫ events inspiring fear and pity
▫ reversal of the situation through recognition [of
persons]

19. Tragedy
• The change of fortune.
▫ Through error or frailty rather than
vice or depravity.
• Fear & Pity
▫ Best done through structure of the
pieces rather than spectacle.
▫ What kind of circumstances?
• Character
▫ Good character; propriety; true to
life; consistency

20. Poetics: Five marks of Tragedy
 Imitates an action
 Arouses pity and fear
 Displays the human image as such
 Ends in wonder
 Is inherently beautiful

21. Poetics: Six elements of Tragedy
• Plot or representation of the action
• Character
• Diction
• Thought
• Melody or music
• Spectacular presentation

22. Six elements of Tragedy…
Categorized in terms of means, manner and its
objects of dramatic imitation:
1. PLOT [objects of dramatic imitation]
2. CHARACTERS [objects of dramatic imitation]
3. DICTION [means]
4. THOUGHT [objects of dramatic imitation]
5. MELODY [means]
6. SPECTACLE [manner]

23. Plot
• Plot is known as the “arrangement of the
incidents”
• Aristotle asserted
▫ plot is the “life and soul of the drama.”
▫ plot should take a linear form proceeding from
beginning to end.

24. PLOT…

25. Plot…
• The plot must be an “imitation of an action that is
complete in itself, as a WHOLE of some
magnitude”
• Unity of Plot: The plot must represent an action
and form a complete whole with a beginning,
middle and end
▫ “Removal of one incident will destroy it, for that
which makes no perceptible difference by its
presence or absence is no real part of the whole."

26. • The PLOT "must make a universal statement
▫ Aristotle believed poetry was more important than
history because poetry states universals.
▫ The playwright should include incidents arousing
pity and fear
 That are both unexpected and "in consequence" of
one another.
• There are 3 elements of Plot
• Hamartia
• Anagnorisis
• Peripeteia
Plot…

27. 3 key elements of plot
• Hamartia: Sin or fault
• Anagnorisis (Recognition): recognition or
realization of the fault/ sin
▫ A change from ignorance to knowledge, producing
love or hate between the persons destined by the
poet for good or bad fortune.
• Peripeteia (Reversal): Turn around or reversal of
fortune
▫ Reversal is a change by which the action veers
round its opposite, subject always to our rule of
probability or necessity.

28. Catharsis
• Tragedy arouses a very specific set of emotions –
pity and fear – and brings about a healthy and
pleasurable experience called catharsis.
• The hero must experience a reversal of fortune, a
fall from happiness to misery.
▫ When we witness a good character experience a
serious reversal, we feel pity for that individual.
▫ But we also feel fear.
Catharsis: Audience pity the character, but fear
for ourselves.

29. Character
• Aristotle referred to this element as “the agent for
the action.”
• The second most important theatrical element.
• As the plot unfolds we get to know & understand the
characters as they reveal their personalities through
their actions & interactions with one another.
• It brings forth a plot
• It serves as the embodiment of action on a stage
• It is a necessary element for identification with the
play

30. Thought
• Sometimes referred to as the “message”
• Usually understood as a universal or clear
meaning to be comprehended by the audience
• Third, in importance as a theatrical element
• Aristotle called this “dianoia,” or “the process of
thought.”
• Sometimes the moral of a play

31. Diction
• This refers to the words used and their
placement in the text of a play.
• Often, differences in diction within a play
indicate differences in characters.
• Diction can also differ from playwright to
playwright or play to play because of the
playwright’s purpose of language in each play.

32. Melody / Music
Aristotle’s definition of music included all of the
audio elements of theatre, not just instrumental
or vocal.
--noises made by actors
--sound effects

33. Spectacle
• The visual element of theatre, Aristotle considered
it the least important of the elements
• The setting, costumes, lights and sound effects
work together to finish the dramatic product.
• Aristotle believed well-written and well-performed
theatre could even be enjoyed even by a blind.
• Radio drama is an excellent example of his
assertion

34. Viewing goes in Reverse
Spectacle – Before the play begins we can see visually elements of
setting, idea and even character.
Music – Before we understand where the plot is going we hear the tempo
of the play. We understand the feeling of the characters through their
pace.
Language – As the characters speak and we hear their voices their
personalities develop before us. We hear the differences in the classes.
Idea – Before the plot has concluded we can see some themes emerging in
the story. We discover what drives characters though we do not know
why.
Character - Upon the conclusion of the play we have an understanding
of the characters and their complete personalities, complimented by the
visual and audible contributions of the designers and the actors.
Plot - The plot of the play is finally complete as we see how all the events
tie together and have focused on one conflict.

35. Kinds of recognition
• By signs
• By letters [word or verbal inventions]
• By awakening a feeling
• By process of reasoning
• A composite kind of recognition involving false
inference on the part of one of the character
• By startling discovery [via incidents]

36. The Three Unities
1. Unity of action
2. Unity of time
3. Unity of place

37. The Unity of Action
According to Aristotle a play should contain only a
single plot or story line (the audience can remain
focused on the idea that it presents rather than
being confused with multiple messages and
subplots).

38. The Unity of Time
• Audiences gain the most pleasure from plays
in which the action occurs during a single
and consecutive course of time.
--more modern plays/literature that
employ flashbacks and abbreviated scenes
would not fit well into Aristotle’s second
unity.
• “Real time” performances in which the action
reflects the actual time of the events would be
most preferable.

39. The Unity of Place
• Greatest comprehension and audience empathy
can be evoked if a play takes place in a single
setting.
• Aristotle’s theory asserts that using different
settings would be too difficult to portray and
would confuse the audience.
• The use of acts and scenes in contemporary
theatre often indicates a departure from Aristotle’s
unities.

40. Time to wake up !!!
Thank You