This document provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the speech and hearing mechanisms. It discusses the basic elements that make up the systems involved in communication, including the nervous system, respiratory system, phonatory system, articulatory system, and auditory system. It also covers anatomical terminology, directional terms, body sections, and the basic building blocks of cells, tissues, ligaments, tendons, joints, and muscles.
The document discusses the human muscular system. It describes that the muscular system provides motor power for all body movements through muscle contraction. It is composed of three types of muscles - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and attached to bones, producing movement. Smooth muscles are involuntary and found in organs. Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart. The muscular system allows for body movements, stability, heat production, circulation, and digestion.
The document discusses the three main types of muscles in the human body - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles. It provides details on the characteristics, structure, and function of each type of muscle. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and striated, found attached to bones. Cardiac muscle is only located in the heart and has an involuntary rhythm. Smooth muscles line organs and blood vessels and are also involuntary, lacking striations. The molecular mechanisms of contraction via the sliding filament theory is also summarized for skeletal and smooth muscles.
The document discusses the structures of the muscular system. It identifies four main types of muscles: skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and sphincter muscles. It also discusses two main types of connective tissues: tendons and fascia. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, striated in appearance, and voluntary. Smooth muscles are involuntary and located in internal organs. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart. Sphincter muscles are circular muscles located around openings.
The skeletal system has five main functions: movement, support, protection, blood cell production, and mineral storage. It is made up of bones and joints, with four basic bone shapes. The document describes the main bones in the skull, spine, shoulders, arms, hands, pelvis, legs, and feet. It also outlines the different joint types and connectors like ligaments and tendons. Common skeletal system problems are discussed like fractures, dislocations, sprains, arthritis, scoliosis, and osteoporosis.
The human muscular system consists of over 650 muscles that are attached to the skeleton and allow for body movement. There are three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle powers movement of the bones, cardiac muscle is only found in the heart, and smooth muscle supports blood vessels and organs. Within these tissues are voluntary muscles that can be controlled and involuntary muscles that cannot, like the heart. Common muscle diseases include myopathies which cause skeletal muscle weakness, muscular dystrophy which is a genetic disorder causing muscle wasting over time, and rhabdomyolysis in which muscle fibers break down releasing toxic contents into the bloodstream.
This document discusses the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and its subdivisions. It begins with an introduction to the ANS and its functions like regulating body temperature and coordinating cardiovascular functions. It then describes the two main subdivisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division originates from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord and targets organs like the heart and lungs. The parasympathetic division originates from the brainstem and sacral spinal cord and targets organs like glands. The document includes diagrams of the pathways and targets of both divisions.
Cartilage and bone are types of connective tissue that provide structure and support. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage - which are located in various parts of the body like joints, ears, and larynx. Cartilage is made of chondrocytes in an extracellular matrix. Bone develops from cartilage through endochondral ossification and forms directly from mesenchymal tissue through intramembranous ossification. Bones have compact bone, spongy bone, and are remodeled through the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Common bone disorders occur due to defects in collagen, calcification, or excessive bone turnover.
The document summarizes key aspects of the integumentary system, including the skin and its layers, accessory structures such as hair and glands, and functions like temperature regulation and protection. It also discusses aging effects on the skin and conditions like burns.
The document discusses the human muscular system. It describes that the muscular system provides motor power for all body movements through muscle contraction. It is composed of three types of muscles - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and attached to bones, producing movement. Smooth muscles are involuntary and found in organs. Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart. The muscular system allows for body movements, stability, heat production, circulation, and digestion.
The document discusses the three main types of muscles in the human body - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles. It provides details on the characteristics, structure, and function of each type of muscle. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and striated, found attached to bones. Cardiac muscle is only located in the heart and has an involuntary rhythm. Smooth muscles line organs and blood vessels and are also involuntary, lacking striations. The molecular mechanisms of contraction via the sliding filament theory is also summarized for skeletal and smooth muscles.
The document discusses the structures of the muscular system. It identifies four main types of muscles: skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and sphincter muscles. It also discusses two main types of connective tissues: tendons and fascia. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, striated in appearance, and voluntary. Smooth muscles are involuntary and located in internal organs. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart. Sphincter muscles are circular muscles located around openings.
The skeletal system has five main functions: movement, support, protection, blood cell production, and mineral storage. It is made up of bones and joints, with four basic bone shapes. The document describes the main bones in the skull, spine, shoulders, arms, hands, pelvis, legs, and feet. It also outlines the different joint types and connectors like ligaments and tendons. Common skeletal system problems are discussed like fractures, dislocations, sprains, arthritis, scoliosis, and osteoporosis.
The human muscular system consists of over 650 muscles that are attached to the skeleton and allow for body movement. There are three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle powers movement of the bones, cardiac muscle is only found in the heart, and smooth muscle supports blood vessels and organs. Within these tissues are voluntary muscles that can be controlled and involuntary muscles that cannot, like the heart. Common muscle diseases include myopathies which cause skeletal muscle weakness, muscular dystrophy which is a genetic disorder causing muscle wasting over time, and rhabdomyolysis in which muscle fibers break down releasing toxic contents into the bloodstream.
This document discusses the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and its subdivisions. It begins with an introduction to the ANS and its functions like regulating body temperature and coordinating cardiovascular functions. It then describes the two main subdivisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division originates from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord and targets organs like the heart and lungs. The parasympathetic division originates from the brainstem and sacral spinal cord and targets organs like glands. The document includes diagrams of the pathways and targets of both divisions.
Cartilage and bone are types of connective tissue that provide structure and support. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage - which are located in various parts of the body like joints, ears, and larynx. Cartilage is made of chondrocytes in an extracellular matrix. Bone develops from cartilage through endochondral ossification and forms directly from mesenchymal tissue through intramembranous ossification. Bones have compact bone, spongy bone, and are remodeled through the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Common bone disorders occur due to defects in collagen, calcification, or excessive bone turnover.
The document summarizes key aspects of the integumentary system, including the skin and its layers, accessory structures such as hair and glands, and functions like temperature regulation and protection. It also discusses aging effects on the skin and conditions like burns.
The document discusses the 10 organ systems that make up the human body. It explains that cells combine to form tissues, tissues combine to form organs, and organs combine to form organ systems. The 10 organ systems are the circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, muscular, digestive, excretory, reproductive, integumentary, nervous, and endocrine systems. Each system works interdependently with the others to keep the body functioning.
Cartilage is a connective tissue found in many areas of the body including joints, ribs, spine, ears and nose. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant and found covering bone surfaces in joints. It contains chondrocytes and provides smooth, flexible surfaces for movement. Fibrocartilage is strong and found in intervertebral discs, menisci, and healing fractures. It contains collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage is yellow and found in external ears and epiglottis. It contains an elastic fiber network and maintains the shape of structures.
Cartilage:
Cartilage is a specialized type of dense collective tissue designed to give support , bear weight and withstand tension , torsion , and bending.
General Features :
• Cartilage supports regions of body that requires flexibility.
• Non nervous structure
• Avascular
• Very poor regeneration power
• Usually surrounded by pericondrium (dense irregular connective tissue surrounding cartilage) except fibro cartilage.
Classification:
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibro cartilage
Fibro Cartilage :
White colored, tough cartilage containing dense connective tissue and collagen fibers often known as intervertebral discs is called fibro cartilage.
Structure :
Fibro cartilage consists of chondrocytes dispersed among bundles of type 1 collagen fibers.
Chondrocytes are present in lacunae (cavity).
The arrangement of cells is different from all other type of cartilages.
Chondrocytes are arranged in parallel rows of 2, 4 or 6 cells.
These rows of cells are called isogenous cell groups.
Chemical Compounds Present :
Proteoglycans rich in sulphated glucosaminoglycans especially
Chondroiton sulphate
Dermatan sulphate
Stain :
Due to the abundance of collagen type 1 fibers , the matrix of fibrocartilage stains intensely acidophilic/eosinophilic. (since collagen is basic in nature)
Stained by EOSIN which is pink in color.
Chondrocytes are stained in purple usually by HEMATOXYLIN and looks purple in color due to acidic nature of large centeral nucleus present.
Occurrence in body :
Intervertebral disc
Disc of pubic symphysis
Menisci of knee joint
Sternoclavicular joint
Temporomandibular joint
Ligamentum tere
Labrum glenoidale
Labrum acetabulare
Fibrocartilage is also found at places where tendons and ligaments attach to bones.
Disorders:
Degeneration of fibrocartilage is seen in degenerative disc disease.
A fibrocartilaginous embolism (FCE) is an unusual cause of spinal cord and cerebral ischemia (insufficient bloodsupply). Symptoms may include sudden, severe pain in the neck and/or back; progressive weakening reduced sensation and paralysis. It may be caused by the blocking of an artery interrupting vascular supply.
A herniated disk is a disk that ruptures. This allows the jelly-like center of the disk to leak, irritating the nearby nerves. This can cause sciatica or back pain.
References:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/herniateddisk.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3289246
histology by laiq hussaain
The document summarizes key aspects of the musculoskeletal system, including:
1) The musculoskeletal system includes bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, and tendons that work together to provide structure, movement, protection, and hematopoiesis.
2) Bones come in different shapes and contain two types of osseous tissue - compact bone and spongy bone. They have various processes and markings that provide sites for muscle attachment.
3) Joints allow various degrees of movement from immobile to freely movable. They are classified by type of movement and contain ligaments and synovial fluid.
The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and clinical anatomy. Regional anatomy focuses on specific parts of the body, systemic anatomy studies the organ systems, and clinical anatomy emphasizes applying anatomical knowledge to medicine. The document then discusses various anatomical terms including anatomical position, planes, and terms related to location, movement, and laterality.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human skeletal system. It describes that the skeletal system is made up of bones and cartilage, with adults having 206 bones that provide structure, protect organs, allow for movement, and store minerals. It also outlines some of the main bones in areas like the spine, ribs, hands, feet, hips, legs, arms, and provides information on bone composition and joints.
Skeletal muscle tissue functions include movement, posture maintenance, joint stabilization, and heat generation. The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones and moving the skeleton. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart walls and has involuntary contractions. Smooth muscle lacks striations and is found in organs like blood vessels with involuntary contractions. Muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament model using actin, myosin, and tropomyosin interacting in the sarcomere basic unit.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. It protects vital organs like the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs and kidneys. Each forms a protective box structure. The skull has 29 bones including the cranium and face bones. The vertebral column has 26 bones and connects the skull to the pelvis. The thoracic cage includes ribs and sternum and provides flexibility for breathing.
This document summarizes the organization and structure of skeletal muscle. It describes that skeletal muscles are composed of bundles of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber contains thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin that slide past each other during muscle contraction. Contraction occurs via a sliding filament mechanism where myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and attach to actin, generating a power stroke that shortens the muscle. Calcium release activates contraction by allowing the myosin heads to bind actin.
The document discusses bones and cartilages. It describes the structure and types of cartilage, including elastic, fibrocartilage, and hyaline cartilage. It then covers the gross structure of bones, including compact and cancellous bone. Bone cells like osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes are also discussed. The functions of bone include mechanical support, mineral storage, and endocrine functions. Bone formation occurs through endochondral and intramembranous ossification. The document also outlines different types of bones such as long, short, flat, and irregular bones.
The document provides an overview of the heart and circulatory system. It describes the pulmonary and systemic circuits, with the pulmonary circuit carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs and returning it oxygenated to the left side of the heart. The systemic circuit then supplies oxygenated blood to the entire body from the left side of the heart. It details the flow of blood through the heart chambers, with the right side receiving deoxygenated blood and pumping it to the lungs, and the left side receiving oxygenated blood and pumping it out to the body. The heart is enclosed within the pericardial sac and has three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
Smoking causes over 400,000 deaths in the US each year from related illnesses. Most smokers begin by age 16 and tobacco will prematurely kill 20,000 of every 100,000 15-year-old smokers. Cigarettes contain over 4,000 chemicals including nicotine, arsenic, methane, and formaldehyde. Smoking leads to various forms of cancer as well as other diseases and conditions like emphysema, arteriosclerosis, and reduced athletic performance. Teenagers often start smoking due to peer pressure, curiosity, a desire for attention or to look dangerous, and stress. Quitting smoking is difficult but preparing to quit, using medication, and getting through the first week are important steps.
This document discusses communication disorders in young children. It defines communication and outlines the different forms including nonlinguistic, verbal, and paralinguistic communication. Key communication milestones are provided for different age groups from 1 month to 5 years. Common causes of communication delays like hearing loss, mental retardation, autism, cerebral palsy, and seizures are explained. The document also distinguishes between language disorders and speech disorders and provides an overview of evaluating and diagnosing communication disorders in young children.
The document discusses evaluation and management of dysphagia in children. It covers the maturation of sucking, swallowing and breathing processes from prenatal to postnatal periods. Instrumental evaluation methods like FEES are described. Pediatric laryngopharyngeal reflux and its relationship to dysphagia is covered. A phonoaudiological protocol is discussed for assessing dysphagia severity and determining non-surgical or surgical management approaches.
At the beginning of the document, the speaker discusses speech development and how speech sounds are described. The speaker then covers speech terminology such as phonemes, graphemes, and the International Phonetic Alphabet. The document discusses how speech sounds are produced in terms of place and manner of articulation, as well as voiced vs voiceless sounds. It provides examples of typical phonological processes in early speech development and how these simplify words. The document concludes by discussing speech sound assessments and interventions.
Csd 210 anatomy & physiology of the speech mechanism iiJake Probst
1. Speech is produced when air is exhaled through the vocal folds in the larynx, causing them to vibrate and transform the air into sound. 2. The vocal tract, including the oral and nasal cavities, then modifies and shapes the sound into specific speech sounds. 3. The brain controls speech and language through structures like the cerebral cortex, Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and neural pathways between neurons.
Csd 210 anatomy & physiology of the speech mechanism iJake Probst
1. Speech is produced through a complex coordinated process involving hundreds of muscles and structures in the head, neck, and chest.
2. Air is inhaled and then exhaled, passing through the vocal folds in the larynx. When the vocal folds vibrate, they transform the exhaled air into sound.
3. The speech mechanism consists of the respiratory, phonatory, resonatory, and articulatory systems working together to generate speech sounds for communication.
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) is the inability to achieve closure of the velopharyngeal port during speech, commonly caused by cleft palate or other structural abnormalities. Signs include hypernasality, nasal emission, and imprecise consonant production. Treatment options include speech therapy, prosthetics like palatal lifts, and surgery like pharyngeal flaps or sphincter pharyngoplasty to improve closure of the airway during speech. Surgical complications can include bleeding, airway obstruction, or sleep apnea requiring revision in some cases.
Speech development- Delay and other problemsBabu Appat
Language is the process whereby we communicate with others. It involves an element of understanding and expression (speech). It is one of the most highly developed of all human skills, giving us a framework for thought and allowing us to communicate. Disorders of speech and language are common, ranging from unclear speech or a slight delay in development to more significant difficulties associated with serious disorders.
Benjamin D. Cohen is a speech-language pathologist. To become licensed, one must complete a master's degree from an accredited program including courses in anatomy, physiology, and speech development. Candidates must also pass a national exam, complete 300-375 hours of supervised clinical experience, and 9 months of postgraduate clinical work. Speech-language pathologists work in hospitals, nursing facilities, schools, and private practices helping people with conditions like cleft palate, stuttering, childhood language delays, and speech or swallowing issues from medical conditions. The highest paying work includes nursing facilities and home health care services.
The document discusses the 10 organ systems that make up the human body. It explains that cells combine to form tissues, tissues combine to form organs, and organs combine to form organ systems. The 10 organ systems are the circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, muscular, digestive, excretory, reproductive, integumentary, nervous, and endocrine systems. Each system works interdependently with the others to keep the body functioning.
Cartilage is a connective tissue found in many areas of the body including joints, ribs, spine, ears and nose. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant and found covering bone surfaces in joints. It contains chondrocytes and provides smooth, flexible surfaces for movement. Fibrocartilage is strong and found in intervertebral discs, menisci, and healing fractures. It contains collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage is yellow and found in external ears and epiglottis. It contains an elastic fiber network and maintains the shape of structures.
Cartilage:
Cartilage is a specialized type of dense collective tissue designed to give support , bear weight and withstand tension , torsion , and bending.
General Features :
• Cartilage supports regions of body that requires flexibility.
• Non nervous structure
• Avascular
• Very poor regeneration power
• Usually surrounded by pericondrium (dense irregular connective tissue surrounding cartilage) except fibro cartilage.
Classification:
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibro cartilage
Fibro Cartilage :
White colored, tough cartilage containing dense connective tissue and collagen fibers often known as intervertebral discs is called fibro cartilage.
Structure :
Fibro cartilage consists of chondrocytes dispersed among bundles of type 1 collagen fibers.
Chondrocytes are present in lacunae (cavity).
The arrangement of cells is different from all other type of cartilages.
Chondrocytes are arranged in parallel rows of 2, 4 or 6 cells.
These rows of cells are called isogenous cell groups.
Chemical Compounds Present :
Proteoglycans rich in sulphated glucosaminoglycans especially
Chondroiton sulphate
Dermatan sulphate
Stain :
Due to the abundance of collagen type 1 fibers , the matrix of fibrocartilage stains intensely acidophilic/eosinophilic. (since collagen is basic in nature)
Stained by EOSIN which is pink in color.
Chondrocytes are stained in purple usually by HEMATOXYLIN and looks purple in color due to acidic nature of large centeral nucleus present.
Occurrence in body :
Intervertebral disc
Disc of pubic symphysis
Menisci of knee joint
Sternoclavicular joint
Temporomandibular joint
Ligamentum tere
Labrum glenoidale
Labrum acetabulare
Fibrocartilage is also found at places where tendons and ligaments attach to bones.
Disorders:
Degeneration of fibrocartilage is seen in degenerative disc disease.
A fibrocartilaginous embolism (FCE) is an unusual cause of spinal cord and cerebral ischemia (insufficient bloodsupply). Symptoms may include sudden, severe pain in the neck and/or back; progressive weakening reduced sensation and paralysis. It may be caused by the blocking of an artery interrupting vascular supply.
A herniated disk is a disk that ruptures. This allows the jelly-like center of the disk to leak, irritating the nearby nerves. This can cause sciatica or back pain.
References:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/herniateddisk.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3289246
histology by laiq hussaain
The document summarizes key aspects of the musculoskeletal system, including:
1) The musculoskeletal system includes bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, and tendons that work together to provide structure, movement, protection, and hematopoiesis.
2) Bones come in different shapes and contain two types of osseous tissue - compact bone and spongy bone. They have various processes and markings that provide sites for muscle attachment.
3) Joints allow various degrees of movement from immobile to freely movable. They are classified by type of movement and contain ligaments and synovial fluid.
The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and clinical anatomy. Regional anatomy focuses on specific parts of the body, systemic anatomy studies the organ systems, and clinical anatomy emphasizes applying anatomical knowledge to medicine. The document then discusses various anatomical terms including anatomical position, planes, and terms related to location, movement, and laterality.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human skeletal system. It describes that the skeletal system is made up of bones and cartilage, with adults having 206 bones that provide structure, protect organs, allow for movement, and store minerals. It also outlines some of the main bones in areas like the spine, ribs, hands, feet, hips, legs, arms, and provides information on bone composition and joints.
Skeletal muscle tissue functions include movement, posture maintenance, joint stabilization, and heat generation. The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones and moving the skeleton. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart walls and has involuntary contractions. Smooth muscle lacks striations and is found in organs like blood vessels with involuntary contractions. Muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament model using actin, myosin, and tropomyosin interacting in the sarcomere basic unit.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. It protects vital organs like the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs and kidneys. Each forms a protective box structure. The skull has 29 bones including the cranium and face bones. The vertebral column has 26 bones and connects the skull to the pelvis. The thoracic cage includes ribs and sternum and provides flexibility for breathing.
This document summarizes the organization and structure of skeletal muscle. It describes that skeletal muscles are composed of bundles of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber contains thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin that slide past each other during muscle contraction. Contraction occurs via a sliding filament mechanism where myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and attach to actin, generating a power stroke that shortens the muscle. Calcium release activates contraction by allowing the myosin heads to bind actin.
The document discusses bones and cartilages. It describes the structure and types of cartilage, including elastic, fibrocartilage, and hyaline cartilage. It then covers the gross structure of bones, including compact and cancellous bone. Bone cells like osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes are also discussed. The functions of bone include mechanical support, mineral storage, and endocrine functions. Bone formation occurs through endochondral and intramembranous ossification. The document also outlines different types of bones such as long, short, flat, and irregular bones.
The document provides an overview of the heart and circulatory system. It describes the pulmonary and systemic circuits, with the pulmonary circuit carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs and returning it oxygenated to the left side of the heart. The systemic circuit then supplies oxygenated blood to the entire body from the left side of the heart. It details the flow of blood through the heart chambers, with the right side receiving deoxygenated blood and pumping it to the lungs, and the left side receiving oxygenated blood and pumping it out to the body. The heart is enclosed within the pericardial sac and has three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
Smoking causes over 400,000 deaths in the US each year from related illnesses. Most smokers begin by age 16 and tobacco will prematurely kill 20,000 of every 100,000 15-year-old smokers. Cigarettes contain over 4,000 chemicals including nicotine, arsenic, methane, and formaldehyde. Smoking leads to various forms of cancer as well as other diseases and conditions like emphysema, arteriosclerosis, and reduced athletic performance. Teenagers often start smoking due to peer pressure, curiosity, a desire for attention or to look dangerous, and stress. Quitting smoking is difficult but preparing to quit, using medication, and getting through the first week are important steps.
This document discusses communication disorders in young children. It defines communication and outlines the different forms including nonlinguistic, verbal, and paralinguistic communication. Key communication milestones are provided for different age groups from 1 month to 5 years. Common causes of communication delays like hearing loss, mental retardation, autism, cerebral palsy, and seizures are explained. The document also distinguishes between language disorders and speech disorders and provides an overview of evaluating and diagnosing communication disorders in young children.
The document discusses evaluation and management of dysphagia in children. It covers the maturation of sucking, swallowing and breathing processes from prenatal to postnatal periods. Instrumental evaluation methods like FEES are described. Pediatric laryngopharyngeal reflux and its relationship to dysphagia is covered. A phonoaudiological protocol is discussed for assessing dysphagia severity and determining non-surgical or surgical management approaches.
At the beginning of the document, the speaker discusses speech development and how speech sounds are described. The speaker then covers speech terminology such as phonemes, graphemes, and the International Phonetic Alphabet. The document discusses how speech sounds are produced in terms of place and manner of articulation, as well as voiced vs voiceless sounds. It provides examples of typical phonological processes in early speech development and how these simplify words. The document concludes by discussing speech sound assessments and interventions.
Csd 210 anatomy & physiology of the speech mechanism iiJake Probst
1. Speech is produced when air is exhaled through the vocal folds in the larynx, causing them to vibrate and transform the air into sound. 2. The vocal tract, including the oral and nasal cavities, then modifies and shapes the sound into specific speech sounds. 3. The brain controls speech and language through structures like the cerebral cortex, Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and neural pathways between neurons.
Csd 210 anatomy & physiology of the speech mechanism iJake Probst
1. Speech is produced through a complex coordinated process involving hundreds of muscles and structures in the head, neck, and chest.
2. Air is inhaled and then exhaled, passing through the vocal folds in the larynx. When the vocal folds vibrate, they transform the exhaled air into sound.
3. The speech mechanism consists of the respiratory, phonatory, resonatory, and articulatory systems working together to generate speech sounds for communication.
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) is the inability to achieve closure of the velopharyngeal port during speech, commonly caused by cleft palate or other structural abnormalities. Signs include hypernasality, nasal emission, and imprecise consonant production. Treatment options include speech therapy, prosthetics like palatal lifts, and surgery like pharyngeal flaps or sphincter pharyngoplasty to improve closure of the airway during speech. Surgical complications can include bleeding, airway obstruction, or sleep apnea requiring revision in some cases.
Speech development- Delay and other problemsBabu Appat
Language is the process whereby we communicate with others. It involves an element of understanding and expression (speech). It is one of the most highly developed of all human skills, giving us a framework for thought and allowing us to communicate. Disorders of speech and language are common, ranging from unclear speech or a slight delay in development to more significant difficulties associated with serious disorders.
Benjamin D. Cohen is a speech-language pathologist. To become licensed, one must complete a master's degree from an accredited program including courses in anatomy, physiology, and speech development. Candidates must also pass a national exam, complete 300-375 hours of supervised clinical experience, and 9 months of postgraduate clinical work. Speech-language pathologists work in hospitals, nursing facilities, schools, and private practices helping people with conditions like cleft palate, stuttering, childhood language delays, and speech or swallowing issues from medical conditions. The highest paying work includes nursing facilities and home health care services.
Cleft lip and palate abnormalities occur when certain facial structures fail to fuse properly during embryonic development between the fifth and seventh weeks. This can result in openings in the lip and roof of the mouth. Clefts may involve just the lip, just the palate, or both. They can range from mild to severe. Early surgery is aimed at restoring normal anatomy, but long-term management may also include hearing, speech, dental, and orthodontic care.
This seminar gives brief description about introduction, normal anatomy of velopharyngeal structure, different closure pattern of velopharynx, diagnostic aids used, VPI in cleft patients
The document discusses speech production and velopharyngeal function. It describes how speech is produced through the coordinated actions of respiration, phonation, resonation, articulation, and neural integration. It focuses on velopharyngeal closure, which regulates airflow into the oral or nasal cavities for speech. Velopharyngeal closure is achieved through sphincteric muscle action that elevates the soft palate and pulls the lateral pharyngeal walls medially. Patterns of velopharyngeal closure can vary between individuals and gender. Insufficiency can occur if the palate is too short to achieve proper closure.
Language disorders involve problems processing linguistic information that can affect grammar, semantics, and other aspects of language. They can be receptive, involving comprehension issues, expressive, involving production problems, or both. Common language disorders include specific language impairment and aphasia. The document goes on to describe receptive language disorders which impact understanding language inputs, expressive disorders affecting output of language, speech disorders, communication disorders, and several specific types of language disorders like dyslexia, dysgraphia, and their symptoms.
1. Aphasia refers to loss of language ability due to brain damage, while alexia and agraphia refer specifically to impairments in reading and writing respectively.
2. Historical studies by Broca and Wernicke in the 19th century localized language functions to specific brain regions, which was later confirmed by modern imaging.
3. Lesions in different brain areas can cause different types of aphasia such as Broca's (non-fluent) or Wernicke's (fluent) aphasia, depending on whether expressive or receptive language is more impaired. Disconnection syndromes can also cause language deficits by disrupting connections between language areas.
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Deglutition, or swallowing, is the coordinated muscle contraction that moves food through the oral cavity, esophagus, and into the stomach. There are two main types of swallowing: infantile swallow and mature swallow. Infantile swallow is an autonomic reflex in infants where suckling and swallowing occur together. Mature swallow develops around ages 4-5 as chewing and swallowing of semisolids and solids is added. It involves relaxation of the lips, placement of the tongue behind the upper teeth, and occlusion of the back teeth during swallowing. The phases of deglutition begin with food in the mouth and involve oral preparation, movement of the bolus into the pharynx by
This document discusses speech and language disorders, including their symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and treatment. Speech disorders can affect fluency, articulation, or voice, while language disorders involve receptive or expressive difficulties. Children may develop these disorders due to brain conditions, while adults can due to events like stroke. Diagnosis is made by a speech pathologist, and treatment may involve therapy, addressing underlying causes, or assistive devices.
This document provides an overview of language disorders, including their classification, characteristics, and neurological underpinnings. It discusses the key elements of communication and defines speech and language. The four domains of language are identified as phonology, grammar, semantics, and pragmatics. Common speech and language disorders are then outlined, including their symptoms, causes, and brain regions involved. The major types discussed are fluency disorders like stuttering, articulation disorders, voice disorders, and language disorders involving expression and reception. Bilingualism and its effects on language development are also addressed.
Deglutition involves the coordinated passage of food from the mouth to the stomach through three phases - oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal. During the oral phase, tongue movements prepare and transfer food into a bolus. In the pharyngeal phase, swallowing becomes reflexive as the bolus passes through the pharynx, with the soft palate and epiglottis protecting the airway. The esophageal phase propels the bolus through peristaltic contractions into the stomach. Swallowing is controlled by brain centers that coordinate the complex activity of muscles and nerves to allow for breathing and swallowing while preventing food from entering the airway.
This document provides an introduction and overview of speech therapy. It defines key terms like speech therapist and speech therapy. It describes various communication disorders that speech therapists treat, including stuttering, voice disorders, language disorders, aphasia, articulation disorders, dysarthria, and dysphagia. It outlines the roles and therapeutic techniques of speech therapists for each disorder. The document emphasizes that speech therapy aims to help people with communication difficulties reach their maximum communication potential.
This document discusses normal speech development and common speech and language disorders. It covers the essentials needed for normal speech development including sensory stimulation, imitation, experimentation, and feedback. It then describes the typical stages of phonation and articulation in infants. The document classifies speech disorders and discusses factors important for diagnosing speech delays.
The skeletal system provides structure and protection for the body. It is made of bones connected by ligaments at joints, and bone marrow inside bones produces blood cells. The skeleton changes over one's lifetime from a flexible newborn skeleton with over 300 bones to the 206 bone adult skeleton. Bones are constantly being built and repaired by osteoblasts and osteoclasts throughout life.
Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a specific function. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Connective tissue provides structural support and connects other tissues throughout the body. It is made of cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix embedded in fluid. Connective tissue includes tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, and blood. It has many important functions like connecting and protecting organs, storing energy, and providing a structural framework.
There are eight types of human tissues: epithelial, connective, adipose, cartilage, bone, muscle, nerve, and blood. Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and glands and is classified as squamous, cuboidal, or columnar based on cell shape. Connective tissue connects different tissues through fibers and ground substances. It includes bone, cartilage, blood, lymphatic, and dense irregular connective tissue. Muscle tissue contains cells that contract to cause movement and includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and conducts electrical signals using neurons.
This document provides an overview of muscles and joints in the human body. It discusses the basic parts and types of muscles, including skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscles. It also describes the different components of muscles like origin, fleshy belly, and tendon. Additionally, it covers the classification and types of joints, including fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. Specifically, it details the seven types of synovial joints like hinge, pivot, ball and socket joints. The document aims to introduce students to the key structures and functions of muscles and joints in the musculoskeletal system.
This presentation is an-all education and entertainment- cut short notes for the TISSUES chapter of class 9. A well-edited and all-graphical presentation will give you an amazing experience.
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This document discusses basic human anatomy and bone structure. It begins with an overview of cells, tissues, organs and body systems. It then discusses bones in more detail, including their classification into long, short, flat and irregular bones based on shape. The document also describes common bone surface markings like processes, fossae and articular surfaces, and their functions in muscle attachment and joint movement. Finally, it discusses bone development through ossification in the womb, childhood and adolescence. In summary, it provides foundational information about human anatomical structures from the cellular level to bone classification and development.
This document provides information about the Human Anatomy and Physiology course for the B.Sc. MLT program. It includes details about the course code, faculty, topics covered, program structure, course objectives, outcomes, syllabus overview divided into six units, and materials to be used. The second unit focuses on the muscular skeletal system, respiratory system, and cardiovascular system. It provides learning objectives and an overview of topics to be covered including the structure and function of these three body systems.
Skeletal system
Divisions of skeletal system,
types of bone,
salient features and functions
of bones of axial and appendicular skeletal system Organization of skeletal muscle,
physiology of muscle contraction,
neuromuscular junction.
The document provides an introduction to medical terminology and anatomy. It discusses the different branches of anatomy including systematic, regional and surface anatomy. It also describes the basic organization of the human body from cells to tissues to organs and systems. Specific topics covered include the integumentary system, skin structure and characteristics, bone structure and classification, fractures, and skull sutures.
The document provides information about the skeletal and muscular systems for a student competition. It includes details on:
1) The skeletal system such as the major bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton, bone structure including long bones, and common bone diseases.
2) The five types of joints in the body and where they are located.
3) The three main types of muscle tissue and their characteristics.
4) Details on striated muscle structure including sarcomeres, myofibrils, and the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.
The document provides information on the anatomy and physiology of various body systems important for exercise and sports. It defines anatomy and physiology and lists the main organ systems in the body. It then discusses the skeletal system including bone classification and types of joints. It also describes the structure and function of the circulatory system including the heart and blood vessels. Finally, it outlines the respiratory system including its structure and functions in gas exchange.
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS.pptxanandhu290576
This document summarizes the structural organization of animals from cells to organ systems. It explains that in multicellular animals, groups of similar cells form tissues like epithelial, connective, muscular and neural tissues to perform specialized functions. Tissues are organized into organs like the heart and lungs, and organs work together in organ systems, like the digestive system. It provides details on the four basic tissue types, their structures and functions, including covering epithelial tissues, connecting and supporting connective tissues, and contracting muscular tissues.
There are four main types of tissue in the body - epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue covers the body and internal organs, connective tissue provides support and protection, muscle tissue allows for movement via contraction, and nervous tissue transmits signals around the body. Each tissue type has variations and works together to carry out essential functions.
Tissues made by ayush dabra class ix roll no. 9311adabra66
- Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.
- In plants, tissues include meristematic tissues for growth and permanent tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma for structure. Xylem and phloem are complex vascular tissues.
- Animal tissues include four main types - epithelial tissues for protection and transport; muscular tissues for movement; connective tissues for connection and support; and nervous tissues for communication.
ANATOMY- structure and function of the cellsaschkusu
This document provides information about anatomy and the skeletal system. It includes questions and answers on topics like:
- Classification of connective tissues and epithelium.
- Structure of the human cell and its organelles.
- Classification of bones and description of compact and spongy bone.
- Types of synovial joints like the shoulder joint.
- Parts of the knee joint including arteries and articular surfaces.
- Description of the patella bone and its importance.
- Names of carpal bones, bones forming joints, and cranial bones.
The document contains short answers on topics related to bones, joints, blood supply, and classification of connective tissues and epithelium. Di
The document discusses cell and tissue types in the human body. It begins by outlining the hierarchical organization of biological structures from atoms to the biosphere. It then discusses how cellular differentiation through mitosis allows for the formation of complex multicellular organisms. The main animal tissue types are identified as epithelial, nervous, muscle, and connective tissues. Each tissue type is described in terms of its characteristic cell types and functions. Connective tissue is discussed in further detail regarding its main cell types, extracellular matrix components like collagen and elastic fibers, and examples of connective tissue diseases.
Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a specific function. There are four main types of animal tissue: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial tissue. Connective tissue provides structure and binds other tissues together. Muscle tissue allows for movement. Nervous tissue transmits electrical signals. Epithelial tissue forms protective layers. Plant tissues include epidermal tissue which forms the outer plant layers, ground tissue which carries out photosynthesis, and vascular tissue which transports fluids.
The document summarizes the four basic types of animal tissues: connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue. It provides details about each type, including that connective tissue serves a connecting function and examples are blood and bone. Muscular tissue is separated into three categories - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Nervous tissue forms the communication network of the body consisting of the brain linked to sites via the spinal cord and nerves. Epithelial tissue forms protective coverings on external and internal surfaces and can be simple or compound layers of cells.
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
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share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...
A&P Basic Elements Of Anatomy 2009
1. Anatomy and Physiology of the Speech and Hearing Mechanisms: Basic Elements of Anatomy Wilhelmina Wright-Harp, Ph.D. Associate Professor: Howard University Department of Communication of Sciences and Disorders 2009 Fall Semester
53. Types of joints cont., http://www.infovisual.info/03/026_en.html
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Editor's Notes
Specializations of anatomy applied anatomy (clinical anatomy) – involves application of anatomical study to diagnosis and treatment of disease, particularly as it relates to surgical procedures. descriptive anatomy (systematic anatomy) – the part of anatomy involved in the description of individual parts of the body and the relations to functional systems, but not of their disease conditions. For example, the study of the anatomical parts of the larynx and their relation to phonation. Microscopic anatomy – the study of body structures through the use of microscopy. Surface anatomy –The study of the configuration of the surface of the body, especially in its realtion to deeper parts. Developmental anatomy – the study of the structural changes in an individual from conception to adulthood. This entails two subfields: embryology which is the study of the embryo and its development fetology which is the study of the growth and development of the fetus. Pathological anatomy – the study of the parts of the body with regard to various pathologiies e.g. Parkinsons’ disease, stroke, etc… Comparative anatomy – the study of human and animal structure with regard to homologous structures or parts. For example, comparative study of the flippers of a seal and the hands of a human being.
anterior (ventral) – toward the front or in front of. posterior (dorsal) – toward the back or in back of. In lower animals it refers to the caudal or (tail) end of the body. Superior – toward the top or above another structure. Inferior – toward the bottom or below another structure. Cranial – toward the cranium or toward the anterior end in animals and superior end of the body in humans. Caudal – same as inferior in humans or toward the tail in animals. Medial – the side of the body or part that is toward the midline or median plan of the body. Lateral – denotes a structure or area of the body that is farther from the median plane or midline of the body. Distal – furtherest from a point of reference (For example, in reference to the shoulder, the fingers would be the most distal point of the arm. Proximal – closest to a point of reference (For example, in reference to the shoulder, the humerus would be the most proximal point of the arm. Axial skeleton includes the head and trunk with the spinal column being the axis. Appendicular skeleton includes the upper (arms) and lower (legs) limbs.
Midsagittal section – divides the body into equal halves (right and left halves) at the medial plane Sagittal section – divides the body into right and left parts that are unequal.
Coronal (frontal) Section – divides the body into anterior and posterior halves. Horizontal or transverse section – divides the body into superior and inferior portions. A horizontal plane intersects the body at a right angle to the coronal or frontal section.
Abduction - Movement away from midline Adduction - Movement toward midline Flexion - Bending of joint toward usually toward the ventral surface Extension - The opposite of flexion act of pulling two ends apart Supination - Palm upward Pronation - Palm downward
The four levels of organization of the body include: Cells – The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent functioning, consisting of one or more nuclei, cytoplasm, and various organelles, all surrounded by a semipermeable cell membrane. Tissues –An aggregation of morphologically similar cells and associated intercellular matter acting together to perform one or more specific functions in the body. There are four basic types of tissue: muscle, nerve, epidermal, and connective. Organs - A differentiated part of an organism, such as an eye, a wing, or a leaf, that performs a specific function. Systems - A group of physiologically or anatomically complementary organs or parts: For example, the respiratory system, the phonatory system, the articulatory system, the nervous system.
Muscle cells - A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell) is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts. Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long chains of sacromeres, the contractile units of the cell. There are various specialized forms of myocytes: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle cells, with various properties. Cardiac myocytes are responsible for generating the electrical impulses that control the heart rate, among other things.
A neuron (pronounced, also known as a neurone or nerve cell ) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves.
Bone cells are of two major types: osteoblasts - a type of cell that is responsible for bone formation. Osteoblasts produce osteoid (the organic portion of the matrix of bone tissue). Bone is a dynamic tissue that is constantly being reshaped by osteoblasts, which build bone. Osteoclasts (a type of bone cell which removes or resorbs bone tissue. Osteoblast cells tend to decrease as individuals become elderly, thus decreasing the natural renovation of the bone tissue.
Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology . Epithelial tissue forms epithelium which is a single layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue covers the external surface of the body and all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways, and the digestive tract. It also is the major tissue in glands. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina. Connective tissue holds other tissues together such as in the formation of organs, and has the ability to stretch and contract passively. Bone and blood are examples of specialized connective tissues. Muscle tissue forms the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, which is found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, which is found attached to bone providing for gross movement; and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood throughout an organism. Nerve Cells comprising the CNS and PNS are classified as neural tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissue forms the brain, cranial nerves and spinal cord and, in the PNS, peripheral nerves inclusive of the motor neurons.
Epithelial Tissue Types: 1. Simple which consists of a single layer of cells. 2. Compound which consists of two or more layers of cells.
The four types of simple epithelial tissue are: I. Simple Epithelia Types (All 1 layer thick) Simple Squamous -single layer of flat cells (e.g. simple squamous tissue is found in the blood vessels, alveoli, heart). Simple Cuboidal – as its name suggests, it is cube shaped and secretory in function. This type of epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules. Simple columnar epithelium - lines the stomach and intestines. Ciliated columnar epithelium - These are simple columnar epithelial cells , but in addition, they posses fine hair-like outgrowths, cilia on their free surfaces. Found in air passages like the nose and trachea.
Simple Squamous -single layer of flat cells. In surface view gives the appearance of "tiled floor" so it is also named "pavement epithelium. Found in the lining of body cavities, blood vessels, pulmonary alveoli, heart, etc … )
Simple Cuboidal -are cube shaped in nature and have a secretory function (e.g. thyroid). Found in glandular tissue, ducts, and in the kidney tubules.
Simple Columnar - column-shaped cells found in absorptive/secretory lining of digestive tract, larger ducts, lining of uterine cervix, etc. Many have microvilli (= brush border in intestinal lining) on apical surface, some have cilia (e.g., fallopian tubes
Ciliated columnar epithelium- These are simple columnar epithelial cells , but in addition, they posses fine hair-like outgrowths, cilia on their free surfaces. These cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic, wavelike beatings in a certain direction. This movement of the cilia in a certain direction causes the mucus, which is secreted by the goblet cells, to move (flow or stream) in that direction. Ciliated epithelium is usually found in the air passages like the nose, trachea and bronchi . It is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes of females. The movement of the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium = all cells are in contact with basement membrane (EM necessary to distinguish this), but not all cells reach epithelial surface, and nuclei reside at more than 1 level. This gives the appearance of >1 layer, when in fact only one layer is present. PSC occurs lining larger excretory ducts, larger ducts of male reproductive system, and respiratory tract. PSC lining espiratory tract has numerous goblet cells and is ciliated. Stratified Epithelium (classified by the outer layer of cells) Stratified Squamous = thick membrane, only the outer layer(s) is squamous. Basal layers often demonstrate considerable irregularity. In Amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals) this epithelium usually becomes keratinized to decrease water loss and protect from abrasion (skin). Stratified Cuboidal/Columnar = usually only two layers thick, rare. Cuboidal present only in the ducts of sweat glands in humans, skin of aquatic vertebrates. Columnar found in parts of male urethra, larger excretory ducts, and conjunctiva of eye. Transitional Epithelium = can be distended or stretched. It is found in the bladder. Composed of several layers of cells, thickness influenced (as is cell shape) by the state of the organs which it lines. Present only in distensible surfaces of excretory tract (bladder, ureters, pelvis of kidney). - In contracted state, it is many layers thick. The basal layer is cuboidal to columnar, intermediates layers are polyhedral, surface layer with large rounded cells. In distended state, upper cells become flat and the entire epithelium appears as a thin. 2-5 layers thick) stratified squamous epithelium. Rounded surface cells may be binucleate.
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and the body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and help repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the body. Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of intercellular matrix with relatively few cells. Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have a good blood supply but some do not.
Areolar Connective Tissue – is loose connective tissue, supportive in nature. Holds organs and epithelia in place, and has a variety of protein fibers, including collagen and elastin. Adipose - Similar to areolar tissue, but impregnated with fat cells. contains adipocytes, used for cushioning, thermal insulation, lubrication (primarily in the pericardium which is a double-walled sac that contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels) and energy storage.
Collagenous/White Fibrous Strong and dense, binds structures to together (e.g. usually found in ligaments) Elastic or Yellow - are bundles of proteins (elastin) found in connective tissue and produced by fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells in arteries. These fibers flexible and can stretch up to 1.5 times their length, and snap back to their original length when relaxed. Found in the trachea and bronchial tubes.
Lymphoid Tissue - i s found in the tonsils and adenoids. Cartilage - it is found primarily in joints, where it provides cushioning. The extracellular matrix of cartilage is composed primarily of collagen.
Vascular/Blood - Blood functions in transport. Its extracellular matrix is blood plasma, which transports dissolved nutrients, hormones, and carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate. The main cellular component is red blood cells. Blood cells are suspended in blood plasma Bone – It makes up virtually the entire skeleton in adults. It is the hardest of the connective tissue. There are two types: compact and spongy bone which contains marrow.
All bones are made of compact and spongy bone tissues. The compact tissue makes the outer part of the bone. The spongy tissue occupies the inner part.
Illustration of outer compact bone with inner spongy bone.
Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. It makes up about 55% of total blood volume. It is composed of mostly water (90% by volume), and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones, and carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation).
There are three basic types of cartilage: Hyaline cartilage which has a bluish white color and is smooth in texture. This type of cartilage is found on articulating surfaces of bones, costal cartilage of ribs, larynx, trachea and bronchial passageway. Fibro-cartilage: is white in color, dense and comprised of flexible fibers. It is found in intervertebral disks and between the knee joints. Yellow (elastic) cartilage is yellow in color, firm and elastic. This is found in the pinna and epiglottis.
The three types of muscle tissues are smooth, striated/skeletal, and cardiac tissue. Smooth muscle is the type that is found in the digestive tract and blood vessels it is involuntary in nature. Cardiac muscle is also involuntary, helps with the function of the heart and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Skeletal muscle is the type that moves skeletal structures it is voluntary in nature.
Smooth muscle is the type that is found in the digestive tract and blood vessels it is involuntary in nature.
Cardiac muscle is also involuntary, helps with the function of the heart and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
Skeletal muscle is the type that moves skeletal structures it is voluntary in nature.
Neurons also known as ( nerve cells ) are electrically excitable cells in the NS that process and transmit information. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the spinal cord, and the peripheral nerves.
Types of Neurons: Sensory neurons - respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli effecting sensory organs and send signals to the spinal cord and brain, Motor neurons - receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and effect glands, Inter-neurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimulus and communicate the presence of that stimulus to the central nervous systems, which process that information and sends a response to other parts of the body for action.
A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact.[1] They are constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally. Functional classification Joints can be classified on the basis of their function or structure . The functional classification is based upon the degree of mobility they allow:[4] Diarthrodial Joints - permit a variety of movements. All diarthrodial joints are synovial joints, and the terms "diarthrosis" and "synovial joint" are considered equivalent Terminologia Anatomica [5] Amphiarthrodial Joints - permit slight mobility. Most amphiarthrodial joints are cartilaginous joints. Synarthrodial Joints - permit little or no mobility. Most synarthrodial joints are fibrous joints.
Fibrous or synarthrodial (immobile) joints are joined by fibrous connective tissue. Three types are: Syndesmosis - A syndesmosis is slightly movable articulation where the contiguous bony surfaces are united by an interosseous ligament, as in the inferior tibiofibular articulation. Tibia = shinbone , is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee. Sutures which join the cranial bones. Gomphosis is a synarthrodial joint that binds the teeth to bony sockets (dental alveoli) in the maxillary and mandibular bones.
Cartilaginous joints are connected entirely by cartilage (fibrocartilage or hyaline). Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint. Cartilaginous joints are found on the vetebral column and between the ribs. Synchondrosis - Where the connecting medium is cartilage, a joint is termed a synchondrosis . This is a temporary form of joint, for the cartilage is converted into bone before adult life. [1] An example would be the joint between the manubrium and the sternum (manubrosternal angle). A Symphysis is a fibrocartilaginuos fusion between two bones. Unlike synchrondroses, symphyses are permanent.[1] Examples The pubic symphysis is one of the more prominent symphyses.
Synovial joints allow for much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones. Bursa sacks contain the synovial fluid.
The illustration above includes several types of joints: Cartilaginous joints are joined by cartilage. Examples are the intervetebral discs which separate the vertebral bones and the joint formed between the ribs and the vertebrae. Synarthrodial (immobile) joints – are illustrated by the sutures which join the cranial bones. Synovial Joints which are highly mobile are illustrated by the hinge (ginglymus) joint found at the elbow and the ball and socket (ellipsoid) joint found between the articulation of the femur and ilium.