Anatomy and the structure and function of cells

1. ANATOMY
B.SC NURSING FIRST YEAR

2. UNIT 1 : INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF ANANTOMY
• SHORT ESSAY
• 1. CLASSIFY CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ANS ; Connective tissues are classified into four classes: BLOOD, BONE, CARTILAGE, CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER.
Tissue that supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body.

3. Q. CLASSIFY EPITHELIUM WITH EXAMPLE FOR EACH . DESCRIBE IN DETAIL THE STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM WITH DIAGRAM
A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous
(flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a
basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the
basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one
another to maintain structural integrity. ... In the deeper
layers, the cells may be columnar or cuboidal.

4. Q, EXPLAIN THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF A HUMAN CELL
A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm
lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles
• What are the structures of the cell?
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life's processes. These
components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.

5. Q, EXPLAIN IN DETAIL CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Connective tissue is classified into two subtypes: soft and specialized connective tissue. ... Connective tissues can have
various levels of vascularity. Cartilage is avascular, while dense connective tissue is poorly vascularized. Others, such as
bone, are richly supplied with blood vessels.
• Tissue that supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. ... Connective tissue is made
up of cells, fibers, and a gel-like substance. Types of connective tissue include bone, cartilage, fat, blood, and lymphatic
tissue
•

6. Q, DESCRIBE IN DETAIL THE STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM WITH DIAGRAM
• A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers
upon a basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers
adhere to one another to maintain structural integrity. ... In the deeper layers, the cells may be columnar
or cuboidal.
• Stratified squamous epithelium is a type of tissue found covering and lining parts of the body. In this
tissue, cells are flattened, joined tightly together, and stacked. The major function of this tissue type
is protection, as it is found in areas that undergo wear-and-tear.
• (FIGURE NERATHE ADD CHEYITHITUND ORU QUESTIONIL)
Q, DRAW THE LABELED DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL CELL

7. Q, DESCRIBE TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM WITH A LABELED DIAGRAM WITH AN EXAMPLE
• Transitional epithelium is a type of tissue that changes shape in response to stretching (stretchable epithelium). ...
Transitional epithelium lines the organs of the urinary system and is known here as urothelium.
• The bladder for example has a need for great distension.

8. 8.Describe pseudostratified columnar epithelium with a diagram
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are tissues formed by a single layer of cells that give the appearance of being made
from multiple layers, especially when seen in cross section. The nuclei of these epithelial cells are at different levels
leading to the illusion of being stratifyed.

9. SHORT ANSWERS
1.Structure of cell
ANS , A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures
called organelles.
• 2.Classification of tissues
ANS , There are 4 basic types of tissue: connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
3.Characteristics of tissues
• Epithelium covers the body surface and lines body cavities.
• Muscle provides movement.
• Connective tissue supports and protects body organs.
• Nervous tissue provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses.
4.Simple squamous epithelium
simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat scale-shaped cells. Both the endothelial lining of blood vessels and
the mesothelial lining of the body cavities are simple squamous epithelium.
5.Types of connective tissue
connective tissues include fibrous, elastic, and lymphoid connective tissues. Fibroareolar tissue is a mix
of fibrous and areolar tissue.
5.Histology of cartilage
Cartilage is a connective tissue structure that is composed of a collagen and proteoglycan-rich matrix and a
single cell type: the chondrocyte. Cartilage is unique among connective tissues in that it lacks blood vessels and
nerves and receives its nutrition solely by diffusion

10. 7.Parts of Mitochondria

11. UNIT2:THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
SHORTESSAY
1.Classify the bones with examples.Describe the histology of compact bone.
What is the histology of compact
and spongy bone?
Compact bone tissue is
composed of osteons and
forms the external layer of all
bones. Spongy bone tissue is
composed of trabeculae and
forms the inner part of all bones.
Four types of cells compose
bony tissue: osteocytes,
osteoclasts, osteoprogenitor
cells, and osteoblasts.

12. 2.Classify synovial joints with examples
3.Describe shoulder joint in detail
Shoulder joint: The flexible ball-and-
socket joint formed by the junction
of the humerus and the scapula.
This joint is cushioned by cartilage
that covers the face of the glenoid
socket and head of the humerus. ...
Ligaments connect the bones of the
shoulder, and tendons join these
bones to surrounding muscles
4.Classify joints joints and explain humerus
The six types of freely movable joint include ball
and socket, saddle, hinge, condyloid, pivot
and gliding. Common causes of joint pain
include inflammation (pain and swelling),
infection and injury.
humerus, long bone of the upper
limb or forelimb of land
vertebrates that forms the shoulder
joint above, where it articulates with a
lateral depression of the shoulder
blade (glenoid cavity of scapula), and
the elbow joint below, where it
articulates with projections of the ulna
and the radius.

13. 5.Describe knee joint under following headings
a)Type and articular surfaces
b)Arterial supply
The knee joint is essentially made up of three bones: The thigh bone (femur), the
shinbone (tibia), and the kneecap (patella). The joint head on the femur has two
strong bony projections, the condyles, which are covered with articular cartilage. The
articular surface of the tibia is called the tibial plateau.
There are two types: primary cartilaginous joints composed of hyaline cartilage,
and secondary cartilaginous joints composed of hyaline cartilage covering the articular
surfaces of the involved bones with fibrocartilage connecting them. ... facet joint – joint
between two articular processes between two vertebrae.
the articular surfaces of the knee joint are the medial and lateral femoral
condyles; the patellar surface of the femur between these two condyles; the
articular surface of the patella, which is a plateau with a anteroposterior ridge that fits
into the patellar surface known as the trochlear groove;

15. 6.What is patella? Mention its Importance
The patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body and is located anterior to
knee joint within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, providing an
attachment point for both the quadriceps tendon and the patellar ligament
The primary function of the patella is during knee extension. ... The patella also functions
to allow for smooth movement of the knee in flexion and extension, and also protects the
anterior surface of the knee joint.
SHORTANSWERS
1.Name the carpel bones

16. 2.Name the bones forming the shoulder joint
The shoulder is made up of three
bones: the scapula (shoulder blade),
clavicle (collarbone) and humerus (upper
arm bone). Two joints in the shoulder allow
it to move: the acromioclavicular joint,
where the highest point of the scapula
(acromion) meets the clavicle, and the
glenohumeral joint.
3.Name the bones forming elbow joint
Anatomy of the Elbow. The elbow is a complex joint formed by the articulation
of three bones –the humerus, radius and ulna.
4.List the tarsal bones
The tarsal bones are 7 in number. They are named the calcaneus, talus, cuboid,
navicular, and the medial, middle, and lateral cuneiforms.

17. 5.Name any 4 cranial bones
Cranial Bones
•Parietal (2)
•Temporal (2)
•Frontal (1)
•Occipital (1)
•Ethmoid (1)
•Sphenoid (1)
6.Arterial supply of hip joint
The arterial supply to the hip joint is largely via
the medial and lateral circumflex femoral
arteries – branches of the profunda femoris artery
(deep femoral artery). They anastomose at the
base of the femoral neck to form a ring, from
which smaller arteries arise to supply the hip joint
itself.
7.Name the parts of sternum
The sternum is divided anatomically into three segments: manubrium, body, and xiphoid
process. The sternum connects the ribs via the costal cartilages forming the anterior rib
cage.
8.List 4 features of lumbar vertrbrae Muscles causing pronation and supination
The main distinguishing feature of the lumbar vertebrae is the orientation of the facets on
the superior and inferior articular processes. The facets on the superior articular
processes face medially and posteriorly, and the facets on the inferior articular processes
face laterally and anteriorly.

18. 9.Define the two types of skeleton
These bones can be grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
... They include the bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs and breastbone or sternum.
The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and
their attachments to the axial skeleton.
10.List any two differences between fetal and
adult skull
What is the difference between the fetal and
adult skull skeleton?
The neurocranium compared to an
adult's is more oval and is substantially
bigger than the facial cranium. The
newborn's skull has four “horns” two in the
front on the frontal bone and two in the back
on the parietal bone. ... The adult's skull is
more circular and the nose, eyes, and mouth
are father apart.
11.Clavicle
The clavicle is a sigmoid-shaped long bone with a convex surface along its medial end
when observed from cephalad position. It serves as a connection between the axial and
appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, and each of these structures forms
the pectoral girdle

19. 12.Bones of the lower limb
The lower limb contains 30 bones. These are
the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones,
metatarsal bones, and phalanges (see Figure 6.51).
The femur is the single bone of the thigh. The patella is
the kneecap and articulates with the distal femur.
13.Draw a labeled diagram of synovial joint
14.Name the parts of hip bone.
The hip bone is formed by three parts: the ilium,
ischium, and pubis.

20. 15.Parts of developing long bones.
List five major parts of a long bone. Epiphysis, diaphysis,
periosteum, yellow marrow, medullary cavity, compact
bone, spongy bone, articular cartilage.
16.List the bones of the upper limb.
In this section, learn more about the anatomy of
the bones of the upper limb – the clavicle,
scapula, humerus, radius, ulna and hand
bones.

21. UNIT III
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SHORTESSAY
1.Muscles of mastication
What are the 4 main muscles of mastication?
Muscles
•Temporalis Muscle.
•Medial Pterygoid.
•Lateral Pterygoid.
•Masseter.
•Accessory Muscles of Mastication.
The muscles of mastication are a group of muscles that consist of
the temporalis, masseter, medial pterygoid and lateral pterygoid muscles. The
temporalis muscle is situated in the temporal fossa, the masseter muscle in the cheek
area, while the medial and lateral pterygoids lie in the infratemporal fossa.
The masticatory muscles attach to the mandible, and thus produce movements of the
lower jaw at the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) to enable functions such as chewing
and grinding. These movements include:
•Protrusion (protraction), which moves the mandible forwards.
•Retraction, which pulls the mandible backwards.
•Elevation, which elevates the mandible and closes the mouth.
•Depression, which depresses the mandible and opens the mouth.
•Rotation, which produces side-to-side movements of the mandible.
•The primary muscles include: Masseter. Temporalis. Lateral pterygoid. Medial pterygoid.
•The secondary or accessory muscles are: Buccinator. Suprahyoid muscles (digastric
muscle, mylohyoid muscle, and geniohyoid muscle) Infrahyoid muscles (the sternohyoid,
sternothyroid, thyrohyoid, and omohyoid muscle)

22. 2.Describe rectus sheath and rectus abdominal muscle The rectus sheath is a
tendon sheath
(aponeurosis)
which encloses the
rectus abdominis and
pyramidalis muscles. It
is an extension of the
tendons of the external
abdominal oblique,
internal abdominal
oblique, and transversus
abdominis muscles.
3.Sternocleidomastoid muscle
The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The
primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and flexion of the neck. The
sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve.
Function. Rotation of the head to the opposite side or obliquely rotate the head. It also flexes the neck. When
acting together it flexes the neck and extends the head.
Definition of Sternocleidomastoid Syndrome
An acute or chronic condition of neck stiffness with decreased mobility (especially
rotation), sometimes accompanied by neck pain or pain in body areas distant from the
neck (eyes, temples, throat, ears, nose, shoulders...), nausea, tinnitus, vertigo and
torticollis.

23. 4.Deltoid muscle
What are the 3 deltoid muscles?
The deltoid muscles have three parts, or
heads:
•Anterior deltoids: The front delts that help
move your arm forward. They connect to your
clavicle. ...
•Lateral deltoids: Side delts that help move
your arm out to the side, as well as up and
down. ...
•Posterior deltoids: Rear delts that help move
your arm backward.
What is the deltoid muscle used for?
The deltoid is responsible for elevating the arm in the scapular plane and its
contraction in doing this also elevates the humeral head.
thick triangular muscle covering the shoulder joint and used for raising the arm away
from the body.
•each of the three parts of a deltoid muscle, attached at the front, side, and rear of
the shoulder.

24. 5.Trapezius muscle
either of a pair of large triangular
muscles extending over the back of the
neck and shoulders and moving the
head and shoulder blade.
he function of the trapezius is to stabilize
and move the scapula. The upper fibers
can elevate and upwardly rotate the scapula
and extend the neck. The middle fibers
adduct (retract) the scapula. The lower
fibers depress and aid the upper fibers in
upwardly rotating the scapula.
6.Gluteus maximus muscle
The gluteus maximus is the
main extensor muscle of
the hip. It is the largest and
outermost of the three gluteal
muscles and makes up a
large part of the shape and
appearance of each side of
the hips. Its thick fleshy mass,
in a quadrilateral shape,
forms the prominence of the
buttocks.

25. 7.Biceps brachii muscle
The biceps or biceps brachii (Latin: musculus biceps brachii, "two-headed
muscle of the arm") is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm
between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the
scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper
forearm.
The brachialis is an important flexor of the forearm at the elbow. [1] The
brachialis provides flexion of the elbow at all physiologic
positions and is considered a "purse flexor" of the forearm at the elbow
8.Name muscles of gluteal region.Describe gluteus maximus in detail
The gluteal muscles, often called glutes are a
group of three muscles which make up the
gluteal region commonly known as the buttocks:
the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius and
gluteus minimus.
Gluteus Maximus the largest and heaviest
muscle in the body. It is the most superficial of
all gluteal muscles that are located at the
posterior aspect of the hip joint. ... It now
functions to maintain the erect posture as one of
the muscles that extends the hip joint.
gluteus minimus, gluteus medius, and gluteus maximus
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26. SHORTANSWERS
1.Name the muscles of mastication
•The primary muscles include: Masseter. Temporalis.
Lateral pterygoid. Medial pterygoid.
•The secondary or accessory muscles are: Buccinator.
Suprahyoid muscles (digastric muscle, mylohyoid muscle,
and geniohyoid muscle) Infrahyoid muscles (the
sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid, and omohyoid
muscle)
2.Name any 4 bones of pelvis
3.Name 2 pectoral muscles and give its nerve supply
The pectoralis major receives dual motor
innervation by the medial pectoral nerve and the
lateral pectoral nerve, also known as the lateral
anterior thoracic nerve. The sternal head receives
innervation from the C7, C8 and T1 nerve roots, via
the lower trunk of the brachial plexus and the medial
pectoral nerve.
The clavicular head of the pectoralis major and the
anteromedial part of the sternal head of the muscle
are supplied by the lateral pectoral nerve which
originates from the lateral cord of the brachial
plexus.
pectoralis major and pectoralis minor. 4.Name 2 muscles of forearm

27. 5.Name the muscles of back of the thigh
Three muscles run down the back of your
leg, from your thigh to your knee — the
biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and
semimembranosus — and help you bend
your knee and extend your hip. As a group,
they are known as the hamstring.
6.Name the contents of femoral triangle
7.Name 4 hamstring muscles
The hamstrings are a group of four
muscles: long head of the biceps femoris,
short head of the biceps femoris,
semitendinosus, and semimembranosus.
Each hamstring crosses two joints—the hip
and the knee.

28. 8.Name 4 parts of quadriceps femoris muscles
quadriceps femoris muscle, large fleshy
muscle group covering the front and
sides of the thigh. It has four
parts: rectus femoris, vastus
lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus
intermedius.
9.Name 4 muscles in the gluteal region
The muscles in this region move the lower
limb at the hip joint. The muscles of the
gluteal region can be broadly divided into two
groups: Superficial abductors and extenders
- group of large muscles that abduct and
extend the femur. Includes the gluteus
maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus
minimus and tensor fascia lata.
10.Femoral hernia
A femoral hernia is an uncommon type
of hernia. Femoral hernias sometimes
appear as a painful lump in the inner
upper part of the thigh or groin. The lump
can often be pushed back in or
disappears when you lie down. Coughing
or straining may make the lump appear.
11.Mention the contents of cubital fossa
The contents of the cubital fossa
include the median nerve, radial nerve,
brachial artery and biceps tendon
12.Mention the contents of popliteal fossa
These include the two terminal branches of the sciatic nerve, the popliteal vessels and
short saphenous vein. ... Several muscles of the thigh and leg form the boundaries of the
popliteal fossa. They include the semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris,
gastrocnemius and popliteus muscles.
Contents: Nerves: tibial, common fibular, sural, ...
Borders: Superomedial: semimembranosus

29. 13.List the type of muscles.
•Skeletal muscle – the specialised tissue
that is attached to bones and allows
movement. ...
•Smooth muscle – located in various
internal structures including the digestive
tract, uterus and blood vessels such as
arteries. ...
•Cardiac muscle – the muscle specific to
the heart.
14.Muscles used for intramuscular injections.
The sites most commonly used for IM
injection are the deltoid, dorsogluteal,
rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and
ventrogluteal muscles. The choice of a
site depends on the volume to be injected.
15.Origin,insertion and nerve supply of deltoid muscle.
Origins Lateral 1/3 of Clavicle
(clavicular part), Acromion
(acromial part), Spine of
Scapula (spinal part)
Mnemonic: 'Deltoid helps you
carry SACS'
Insertion Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
Innervation Axillary nerve (C5, C6)
The muscle has a wide origin spanning the clavicle, acromion and spine of scapula.
...
Deltoid muscle.
nerve supplies deltoid muscle?
The anterior branch of the
axillary nerve winds round the
humerus deep to the deltoid
muscle, and also innervates the
muscle at this point. The posterior
branch of the axillary nerve
innervates the teres minor and
also the deltoid.

30. 16.Mention the differences between skeletal and smooth muscle
Skeletal Muscles Smooth Muscles
They are attached to the bones.
They line up the visceral organs viz. Intestines,
blood vessels, pupils, etc.
They perform voluntary actions.
They are responsible for involuntary reflexes and
actions.
They are well striated. They lack striation.
Innervated by Peripheral Nervous System i.e.
PNS.
Innervated by Sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems.
Help perform movements i.e walking, running,
jumping, writing, etc.
Responsible for vital body functions i.e.
breathing, digestion, urine formation, etc.
Calcium is the most vital substance in the
process of skeletal muscle contraction.
Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine or
Norepinephrine play important role in smooth
muscle contraction.
Types of Skeletal Muscles are Red and White.
Types of Smooth Muscles are Single-unit, Multi-
unit, eg. Ciliary muscles.
They contain actin and myosin filaments. The
ratio of actin & myosin is 2:1.
They also contain actin and myosin filaments,
The ratio of actin and myosin is 10:1.
Troponin is present in skeletal muscles that are
Ca-binding proteins responsible for muscle
contraction.
Calmodulin is present in smooth muscles that
are Ca-binding proteins responsible for muscle
contraction.

31. UNIT IV
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
SHORTESSAY
1.Name the parts of central nervous system and
describe the cerebral hemisphere
The central nervous system (CNS) controls
most functions of the body and mind. It
consists of two parts: the brain and the
spinal cord. The brain is the center of our
thoughts, the interpreter of our external
environment, and the origin of control over
body movement.
The brain and the spinal cord are the
central nervous system, and they
represent the main organs of the
nervous system. The spinal cord is a
single structure, whereas the adult
brain is described in terms of four
major regions: the cerebrum, the
diencephalon, the brain stem, and
the cerebellum.

32. One half of the cerebrum, the part of the
brain that controls muscle functions and also
controls speech, thought, emotions, reading,
writing, and learning.
the largest regions of the cerebellum, the
cerebellar hemispheres are two divisions of
the cerebellum on either side of the
vermis. They are functionally subdivided into
lateral and medial portions. See
spinocerebellum and cerebrocerebellum
describe the cerebral hemisphere

33. 2.Name the various lobes of cerebrum.Describe various functional areas of cerebrum
Traditionally, each of the hemispheres has
been divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal,
temporal and occipital
The brain has three main parts: the
cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem.
Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain
and is composed of right and left
hemispheres. It performs higher functions
like interpreting touch, vision and
hearing, as well as speech, reasoning,
emotions, learning, and fine control of
movement.

34. 3.Explain the structure of cerebellum in detail
The cerebellum consists of a cortex
covering white matter, as well as a
ventricle filled with fluid. It is also
divided into two hemispheres like the
cerebral cortex. There are two main
parts of the cerebellum: Cerebellar
cortex: A layer containing folded tissue
containing most of the cerebellum's
neurons.
What are the 4 functions of the
cerebellum?
The cerebellum controls
voluntary movements such as:
•walking.
•posture.
•balance.
•coordination.
•eye movements.
•speech.

35. 4.Describe brachial plexus of nerves
The brachial plexus is a network of nerve
fibres that supplies the skin and
musculature of the upper limb. It begins
in the root of the neck, passes through the
axilla, and runs through the entire upper
extremity.
The brachial plexus is a major network of
nerves transmitting signals
responsible for motor and sensory
innervation of the upper extremities,
including the shoulder, arm, and hand.
5.Spinal cord
A column of nerve tissue that runs from the
base of the skull down the center of the back. It
is covered by three thin layers of protective
tissue called membranes. The spinal cord and
membranes are surrounded by the vertebrae
(back bones). The spinal cord and the brain
make up the central nervous system (CNS).
main function of spinal cord?
It connects your brain to your lower back. Your
spinal cord carries nerve signals from your
brain to your body and vice versa. These
nerve signals help you feel sensations and
move your body. Any damage to your spinal
cord can affect your movement or function.
The spinal cord is divided into four different regions: the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and
sacral regions . The different cord regions can be visually distinguished from one another.

36. 6.Draw a neat labeled diagram of circle of Willis
The Circle of Willis is the joining
area of several arteries at the
bottom (inferior) side of the brain.
At the Circle of Willis, the internal
carotid arteries branch into smaller
arteries that supply oxygenated
blood to over 80% of the cerebrum
7.Trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve is one of 12 sets of cranial
nerves. It enables movement in the eye's superior
oblique muscle. This makes it possible to look
down. The nerve also enables you to move your
eyes toward your nose or away from it.
each of the fourth pair of cranial nerves,
supplying the superior oblique muscle of the
eyeball.
8.Explain cerebellum with its anatomical significance.
The cerebellum is located behind the top part of the brain
stem (where the spinal cord meets the brain) and is made
of two hemispheres (halves). ... The cerebellum receives
information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord,
and other parts of the brain and then regulates control
of movements.
The cerebellum is important for making postural
adjustments in order to maintain balance. Through its
input from vestibular receptors and proprioceptors, it
modulates commands to motor neurons to compensate
for shifts in body position or changes in load upon
muscles.

37. 9.Classify nervous system and write a note
on neurons
Neurons are information messengers. They use
electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit
information between different areas of the brain,
and between the brain and the rest of the nervous
system. ... Neurons have three basic parts: a cell
body and two extensions called an axon (5) and a
dendrite (3)

38. 10.Ulnar nerve and its applied anatomy
The ulnar nerve innervates the flexor
muscles of the forearm including the
flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor digitorum
profundus. ... In the hand, superficial
branch of the ulnar nerve innervates
palmaris brevis muscle and sensory to
the hypothenar muscles, fourth common
digital nerve, and ulnar proper nerve.
11.Radial nerve and its applied anatomy
The radial nerve is a nerve in the human body
that supplies the posterior portion of the upper
limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the
triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12
muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of
the forearm and the associated joints and overlying
skin.

39. SHORTANSWERS
1.Name the parts of the brain stem
2.Name ventricles of brain
The ventricles of the brain are a
communicating network of cavities
filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
and located within the brain
parenchyma. The ventricular system
is composed of 2 lateral ventricles,
the third ventricle, the cerebral
aqueduct, and the fourth ventricle
3.Name major parts of central nervous system
The three main components of the central nervous
system are the brain, spinal cord, and neurons.
4.Mention the functions of CSF
{Cerebrospinal fluid flow}
Removal of waste, cushioning of brain and
intracranial neurovascular structures, neutral
buoyancy, electrolytic homeostasis
5.Name 4 cranial nerves
olfactory nerve (I),
the optic nerve (II),
oculomotor nerve(III),
trochlear nerve (IV),
trigeminal nerve (V),
abducens nerve (VI),
facial nerve (VII),
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII),
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX),
vagus nerve (X),
accessory nerve (XI),
and the hypoglossal nerve (XII)

40. 6.Mention the two functions of cerebellum
The cerebellum is located in the back of
your brain. It helps with the coordination
and movement related to motor skills,
especially involving the hands and feet. It
also helps maintain posture, balance,
and equilibrium
7.Spinal ganglion
is a cluster of nerve bodies positioned
along the spinal cord at the dorsal and
ventral roots of a spinal nerve.
8.What is wry neck
Wry neck (torticollis) is a tilted and
twisted neck that can be congenital or
result from muscle injury, swollen lymph
nodes, ear infection
9. Erb’s palsy
Erb's palsy is a condition characterized by
arm weakness and loss of motion. It can
occur in both infants and adults. It's typically
caused by a physical injury during newborn
delivery or by traumatic force downward on the
upper arm and shoulder, damaging the brachial
plexus.
10 .Carpal tunnel syndrome
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common condition
that causes pain, numbness, and tingling in
the hand and arm. The condition occurs when
one of the major nerves to the hand — the
median nerve — is squeezed or compressed as
it travels through the wrist.

41. 11 .Mention 2 parts of sciatic nerve
At the popliteal fossa, the nerve
divides into its two branches: The
tibial nerve, which travels down
the posterior compartment of the
leg into the foot. The common
peroneal nerve (also called the
common fibular nerve), which
travels down the anterior and
lateral compartments of the leg into
the foot.
12. Neuralgia
Neuralgia is a sharp, shocking
pain that follows the path of a
nerve and is due to irritation or
damage to the nerve. Common
neuralgias include: Postherpetic
neuralgia (pain that continues after
a bout of shingles) Trigeminal
neuralgia (stabbing or electric-
shock-like pain in parts of the face)
13 .Bell’s palsy
Bell's palsy is an unexplained episode of facial
muscle weakness or paralysis. It begins suddenly
and worsens over 48 hours. This condition results from
damage to the facial nerve (the 7th cranial nerve). Pain
and discomfort usually occur on one side of the face or
head. Bell's palsy can strike anyone at any age.
14 . Lumbar puncture
A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is performed in your
lower back, in the lumbar region. During a lumbar
puncture, a needle is inserted between two lumbar
bones (vertebrae) to remove a sample of
cerebrospinal fluid. This is the fluid that surrounds
your brain and spinal cord to protect them from injury
15. Name the branches of the trigeminal nerve
It contains the sensory cell bodies of the 3 branches
of the trigeminal nerve (the ophthalmic,
mandibular, and maxillary divisions). The
ophthalmic and maxillary nerves are purely sensory.

42. 16 . Mention the function of hypoglossal nerve
The hypoglossal nerve enables tongue
movement. It controls the hyoglossus,
intrinsic, genioglossus and styloglossus
muscles. These muscles help you speak,
swallow and move substances around in
your mouth.
17. Explain the deformity in klumpke’s paralysis
Klumpke's paralysis is a form of paralysis
involving the muscles of the forearm and
hand, resulting from a brachial plexus
injury in which the eighth cervical (C8) and
first thoracic (T1) nerves are injured either
before or after they have joined to form the
lower trunk.
18. Special features of Medulla oblongata
19. Draw a labeled diagram of neurons.
20.Mention the parts of the brain
The medulla oblongata, also known as the
medulla, directly controls certain ANS responses,
such as heart rate, breathing, blood vessel
dilation, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and
vomiting. It is a portion of the brainstem, located
just below the pons and just above the spinal
cord.

43. UNIT V
THE SENSORY ORGANS
SHORT ESSAY
1.Draw a diagram of eyeball and briefly explain its parts
2. Describe the extra ocular muscles
eyeball, spheroidal structure containing sense
receptors for vision, found in all vertebrates and
constructed much like a simple camera. ... Much
of the eyeball is filled with a transparent gel-like
material, called the vitreous humour, that helps to
maintain the spheroidal shape.
Six muscles outside the eye govern its
movements. These muscles are
the four rectus muscles—the
inferior, medial, lateral, and superior
recti—and the superior and inferior
oblique muscles. The tendon is
attached to the sclera back of the
equator of the eye.

44. 3. Explain the parts of internal ear 4 .Describe 4 recti muscles
The inner ear has two main parts. The
cochlea , which is the hearing
portion, and the semicircular canals
is the balance portion. The cochlea
is shaped like a snail and is divided
into two chambers by a membrane. ...
The semi-circular canals are also
known as the labyrinthine.
These muscles are the four rectus muscles—the
inferior, medial, lateral, and superior recti—and
the superior and inferior oblique muscles. The
rectus muscles arise from a fibrous ring that
encircles the optic nerve at the optic foramen, the
opening through which the nerve passes, and are
attached to the sclera,

45. 5 .Describe the layers of skin with diagram. 6. Tympanic membrane
The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a
waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. The dermis,
beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair
follicles, and sweat glands. The deeper subcutaneous tissue
(hypodermis) is made of fat and connective tissue.
The tympanic membrane is also
called the eardrum. It separates the
outer ear from the middle ear. ... The
middle ear bones then transfer the
vibrating signals to the inner ear. The
tympanic membrane is made up of a thin
connective tissue membrane covered by
skin on the outside and mucosa on the
internal surface

46. 7. Tongue 8. Auditory tube
The human tongue is divided into two
parts, an oral part at the front and a
pharyngeal part at the back. The left and
right sides are also separated along most of
its length by a vertical section of fibrous
tissue (the lingual septum) that results in a
groove, the median sulcus, on the tongue's
surface.
The Eustachian tube is a small
passageway that connects your throat
to your middle ear. When you sneeze,
swallow, or yawn, your Eustachian tubes
open. This keeps air pressure and fluid
from building up inside your ear. But
sometimes a Eustachian tube might get
plugged

47. 9. Epidermis
The layers of the epidermis
include the stratum basale (the
deepest portion of the
epidermis), stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum, stratum
lucidum, and stratum corneum
(the most superficial portion of
the epidermis)
main function of the epidermis?
The epidermis is the top layer of skin in
your body. It has many important
functions, including protecting your
body from the outside world, keeping
your skin hydrated, producing new skin
cells and determining your skin color.

48. 10. Superior and Inferior oblique muscle of eye
11 .Structure of eyeball
The superior oblique muscle is
responsible for abduction, internal
rotation, and depression. Hence, if there
is paralysis of the superior oblique muscle,
the inferior oblique action is unopposed and
results in extreme elevation.
The superior oblique is a fusiform
(spindle-shaped) muscle belonging to
the extraocular group of muscles. It
originates near the nose. Along with the
other extraocular muscles, it performs the
role of controlling eye movements.
The inferior oblique is the only
extraocular muscle to have its
anatomic origin in the anterior
orbit. The muscle runs from the
medial corner of the orbit to the
lateral aspect of the globe, its length
approximately paralleling the tendon
of insertion of the superior oblique
muscle.
The eye is made up of three coats, which enclose the optically
clear aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous body. The outermost
coat consists of the cornea and the sclera; the middle coat
contains the main blood supply to the eye and consists, from the
back forward, of the choroid, the ciliary body, and the iris.

49. SHORTANSWERS
1.Layers Of EyeBall
2. Name The Ear Ossicles
3 . Any Four Functions Of Skin
5. Name the papillae of tongue
•The outer layer of the eyeball is a tough,
white, opaque membrane called the sclera
(the white of the eye). ...
•The middle layer is the choroid. ...
•The inner layer is the retina, which lines
the back two-thirds of the eyeball.
The malleus, incus, and stapes form the
ossicular chain that connects the tympanic
membrane to the oval window of the inner
ear.
•Provides a protective barrier against mechanical,
thermal and physical injury and hazardous
substances.
•Prevents loss of moisture.
•Reduces harmful effects of UV radiation.
•Acts as a sensory organ (touch, detects
temperature).
•Helps regulate temperature.
•An immune organ to detect infections etc.
Papillae are the tiny raised protrusions on
the tongue that contain taste buds. The
four types of papillae are filiform, fungiform,
foliate, and circumvallate. Except for the
filiform, these papillae allow us to
differentiate between sweet, salty, bitter,
sour, and umami (or savory) flavors.
6. List the auditory apparatus
The auditory system is a body system that is
responsible for the sense of hearing. It is
divided into two subsystems- the peripheral
auditory system (outer ear, middle ear and
inner ear) and the central auditory system
(from the cochlear nucleus up to the primary
auditory cortex).
The auditory system is comprised of three
components; the outer, middle, and inner
ear, all of which work together to transfer
sounds from the environment to the brain.

50. 7. Name 3 parts of bony labyrinth
8 . Mention the functions of eyelid
9. Give the nerve supply of extra-ocular muscles
10. Mention 4 contents of middle ear
The bony labyrinth is a complex space
of three parts: the conical cochlea,
the semicircular canals and the
vestibule, which connects the former
two parts.
The extraocular muscles are innervated by lower
motor neurons that form three cranial nerves: the
abducens, the trochlear, and the
oculomotor (Figure 20.3). The abducens nerve
(cranial nerve VI) exits the brainstem from the
pons-medullary junction and innervates the lateral
rectus muscle.

51. 11. Nerve supply to tongue.
12. Draw and label the diagram of skin.
{ ITH ADD CHEYITHITUND }
13. Nasal sinuses.
14. Name the structure of the eye
{ITH ADD CHEYITHITUND}
Taste to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
is achieved through innervation from the
chorda tympani nerve, a branch of the facial
nerve (CN VII). General sensation to the
anterior two-thirds of the tongue is by
innervation from the lingual nerve, a branch
of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal
nerve (CN V3).
4 nasal sinuses?
Four sets of paired sinuses are
recognized: maxillary, frontal, sphenoid,
and ethmoid
Purposes of the Sinuses
The sinuses lighten the skull or improve our
voices, but their main function is to produce a
mucus that moisturizes the inside of the
nose. This mucus layer protects the nose from
pollutants, micro-organisms, dust and dirt.

52. UNIT VI CIRCULATORY & LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM
LONGE SSAYS
1. Describe the gross anatomy of heart in detail
2.Name the chambers of the heart with a brief detail of
each chamber and the valves in between them
The heart contains 4 chambers that essentially make
up 2 sides of 2 chamber (atrium and ventricle) circuits;
the left side chambers supply the systemic circulation,
and the right side chambers supply the pulmonary
circulation. The chambers of each side are separated
by an atrioventricular valve (A-V valve).
A typical heart has two upper and two lower
chambers. The upper chambers, the right and left
atria, receive incoming blood. The lower chambers,
the more muscular right and left ventricles, pump
blood out of the heart. The heart valves, which keep
blood flowing in the right direction, are gates at the
chamber openings.
The mitral valve and tricuspid valve are located
between the atria (upper heart chambers) and the
ventricles (lower heart chambers). The aortic valve
and pulmonic valve are located between the
ventricles and the major blood vessels leaving the
heart.
The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood
from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to
the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich
blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left
ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich
blood to the body.
{FIGURE ADD CHEYITHILLA NALLA FIGURE
NOKIPADIKE}

53. 3. Describe the right atrium in detail 4. Describe the ventricles of heart .Write a note on
blood supply of heart
The right atrium is the first chamber of the
heart that the blood comes into contact with
as it returns from the systemic circulation,
and from the blood supply to the heart. The
blood entering this chamber is deoxygenated.
Right atrium: one of the four chambers of the
heart. The right atrium receives blood low in
oxygen from the body and then empties the
blood into the right ventricle.
The internal cavity of the heart is divided into
four chambers:
•Right atrium.
•Right ventricle.
•Left atrium.
•Left ventricle.
The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood
to the lungs through the pulmonary valve.
The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the
lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle through the
mitral valve. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich
blood through the aortic valve out to the rest of the
body.
The left ventricle of your heart is larger and
thicker than the right ventricle. This is
because it has to pump the blood further
around the body, and against higher
pressure, compared with the right ventricle.
A wall of muscle called the septum separates the
left and right atria and the left and right ventricles.
The left ventricle is the largest and strongest
chamber in your heart.

54. 5. Explain spleen in detail Location, external features,
blood supply, histology and functions Coronary arteries supply blood to the
heart muscle. Like all other tissues in the
body, the heart muscle needs oxygen-rich
blood to function.
blood supply of heart
14 steps, blood flows through the heart in
the following order: 1) body –> 2)
inferior/superior vena cava –> 3) right
atrium –> 4) tricuspid valve –> 5) right
ventricle –> 6) pulmonary arteries –> 7)
lungs –> 8) pulmonary veins –> 9) left
atrium –> 10) mitral or bicuspid valve –
> 11) left ventricle –> 12) aortic valve –>
13) aorta –> 14) body.
The spleen has some important functions:
it fights invading germs in the blood (the
spleen contains infection-fighting white blood
cells) it controls the level of blood cells (white
blood cells, red blood cells and platelets) it
filters the blood and removes any old or
damaged red blood cells.

55. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Waldeyer’s ring
2. Mention the formation and termination
of thoracic duct
3. Where is spleen located and give its four
important functions
4 . Name 4 groups of cervical lymph nodes
Waldeyer's ring consists of four tonsillar
structures (namely, the pharyngeal, tubal,
palatine and lingual tonsils) as well as small
collections of lymphatic tissue disbursed
throughout the mucosal lining of the pharynx
(mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, MALT)
{PIC NOKU}.
The summit of arch is located 3-4 cm above the clavicle.
Finally, the duct descends in front of the first part of left
subclavian artery and finally ends by opening into the
junction of left subclavian and left internal jugular veins.
The thoracic duct begins in abdomen, courses via thorax and
ends in the neck.
{EE KODUTHEKUNNA IMAGE ADDRESS KAYARI ATHIL
OLLA FORMATION AND TERMINATION NOKKE}
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thoracic
ducts-190514175716/95/thoracic-ducts-
5-638.jpg?cb=1557856715
The spleen is a fist-sized organ in the upper left side
of your abdomen, next to your stomach and behind
your left ribs. It's an important part of your immune
system, but you can survive without it.
What does the spleen do?
•Stores blood.
•Filters blood by removing cellular waste and getting
rid of old or damaged blood cells.
•Makes white blood cells and antibodies that help you
fight infection.
•Maintains the levels of fluid in your body.
•Produces antibodies that protect you against
infection.
•facial group. inferior maxillary (supramaxillary,
supramandibular, inframandibular) buccinator.
infraorbital (nasolabial) ...
•parotid group. periparotid/preauricular. superficial
extrafascial. ...
•mastoid group (retroauricular/postauricular or
posterior auricular)
•occipital group. suprafascial. subfascial.

56. 5. Apex beat
6. Branches of the right coronary
artery
7. Name 3 layers of wall of blood vessels
8. Mention 2 differences between large and medium sized
arteries
The apex beat (lat. ictus cordis), also
called the apical impulse, is the pulse
felt at the point of maximum impulse
(PMI), which is the point on the
precordium farthest outwards (laterally)
and downwards (inferiorly) from the
sternum at which the cardiac impulse
can be felt.
•Left coronary artery (LCA) Left
anterior descending artery. Left
circumflex artery. Posterior
descending artery. Ramus or
intermediate artery.
•Right coronary artery (RCA)
Right marginal artery. Posterior
descending artery.
The right coronary artery divides into
smaller branches, including the right
posterior descending artery and the
acute marginal artery. Together with the
left anterior descending artery, the right
coronary artery helps supply blood to the
middle or septum of the heart.
The blood vessel wall has three layers: intima, media and
adventitia. The intima consists of endothelium and
subendothelial connective tissue and is separated from the
media by the elastic lamina interna. Endothelial cells form a
continuous monolayer lining all blood vessels.

57. 9. Mention 2 differences between the structure of large
artery and large vein
10. Chambers of heart
There are four chambers: the left
atrium and right atrium (upper
chambers), and the left ventricle
and right ventricle (lower
chambers). The right side of your
heart collects blood on its return
from the rest of our body. The blood
entering the right side of your heart
is low in oxygen.

58. UNIT VII
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
LONG ESSAYS
1 . Describe the nasal cavity and its applied
anatomy
2. Name the parts of respiratory tract and describe
lungs in detail with applied aspects
The nasal cavity is a large, air-filled
space above and behind the nose in
the middle of the face. The nasal
septum divides the cavity into two
cavities, also known as fossae. Each
cavity is the continuation of one of the
two nostrils. ... The paranasal sinuses
surround and drain into the nasal cavity.
The organs that are involved in breathing. These
include the nose, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
lungs. Also called respiratory system.
•Nose.
•Mouth.
•Throat (pharynx)
•Voice box (larynx)
•Windpipe (trachea)
•Large airways (bronchi)
•Small airways (bronchioles)
•Lungs.
The lungs are the major organs of the respiratory
system, and are divided into sections, or lobes. The
right lung has three lobes and is slightly larger than the
left lung, which has two lobes. The lungs are
separated by the mediastinum. This area contains the
heart, trachea, esophagus, and many lymph nodes.
{FIG NOKANNE ATH VARACHU MARK CHEYYANE
LUNGS INTE}

59. 3.Name the parts of the respiratory system
.Describe the right lung in detail. Mention
the differences from left lung
4.Describe the structure of lungs in detail with a
diagram
What Are the Parts of the Respiratory
System? The respiratory system includes the
nose, mouth, throat, voice box, windpipe,
and lungs. Air enters the respiratory system
through the nose or the mouth. If it goes in the
nostrils (also called nares), the air is warmed
and humidified.
The right lung has both more lobes and
segments than the left. It is divided into three
lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower lobe by
two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal.
The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the
upper from the middle lobe.
The lungs are the major organs of the
respiratory system, and are divided into
sections, or lobes. The right lung has three
lobes and is slightly larger than the left lung,
which has two lobes. The lungs are separated
by the mediastinum. This area contains the
heart, trachea, esophagus, and many lymph
nodes.

60. SHORTANSWERS
1. Name the air sinuses opening into middle meatus
2. Name the para nasal air sinuses
3. Name the openings in the lateral wall of nose
4. Name the bones forming nasal septum
Middle Meatus: located inferior to the middle
turbinate and superior to the inferior turbinate
- there are several structures within this
meatus. This is the drainage site of
the frontal, anterior ethmoid, and maxillary
sinuses.
The middle meatus is an air passage of the
lateral nasal cavity located between the
middle nasal concha and lateral nasal wall.
The anterior ethmoid air cells, maxillary and
frontal sinuses all drain into the middle
meatus.
One of many small hollow spaces in the
bones around the nose. Paranasal sinuses
are named after the bones that contain
them: frontal (the lower forehead),
maxillary (cheekbones), ethmoid
(beside the upper nose), and sphenoid
(behind the nose).
•Sphenoethmoidal recess. The space
between the superior nasal concha and
the sphenoid bone, with openings from
the sphenoid sinus.
•Superior meatus. ...
•Middle meatus. ...
•Inferior meatus. ...
•Sphenopalatine foramen.
The nasal septum is formed by the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, the
vomer bone, and the septal cartilage.

61. 5. Name 4 cartilages of larynx
7. Name any four muscles of pharynx
•the thyroid cartilage,
•the epiglottic cartilage,
•the cricoid cartilage,
•the arytenoid cartilages and.
•the corniculate and cuneiform cartilages.
•Superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
•Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
•Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
•Palatopharyngeus muscle.
•Salpingopharyngeus muscle.
•Stylopharyngeus muscle.

62. 9 . Name two pleural recesses
10. Mention 4 structures passing through
the diagram
11. Mention the action of intercostals muscle
12. Respiratory muscles.
The two recesses in the pleural cavity
include the following:
•Costomediastinal recess which is found
between the mediastinal and costal pleura.
The space is located just posterior the
sternum.
•Costodiaphragmatic recess is found
between the diaphragmatic and costal
pleura.
These are the quadratus lumborum, and
psoas major muscles. Three important
structures pass through the
diaphragm: the esophagus, and the two
main blood vessels of the lower half of
the body, the inferior vena cava, and the
descending aorta. This is the opening for
the inferior vena cava, the vena caval
foramen.
Intercostal muscles are many different groups
of muscles that run between the ribs, and help
form and move the chest wall. The intercostal
muscles are mainly involved in the
mechanical aspect of breathing by helping
expand and shrink the size of the chest
cavity.
Nerve: intercostal nerves
Artery: intercostal arteries
Insertion: ribs 2-12
Origin: ribs 1-11
From a functional point of view, there are three
groups of respiratory muscles: the diaphragm,
the rib cage muscles and the abdominal
muscles. Each group acts on the chest wall
and its compartments, i.e. the lung-apposed rib
cage, the diaphragm-apposed rib cage and the
abdomen

63. UNIT VIII
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
LONG ESSAYS
1.Describe the location, blood supply, nerve
supply and applied anatomy of rectum
2. Describe the parts, features, blood supply and
histology of stomach
The rectum is supplied by the superior rectal
artery (branch of the inferior mesenteric
artery), middle rectal artery (branch of the
internal iliac artery) and inferior rectal artery
(branch of the internal pudendal artery from the
internal iliac artery).
Gross anatomy: Two flexures: sacral, perineal;
...
Supply: Arteries: superior, middle, inferior rectal
...
Histology: Intestinal epithelium
The rectum is an 18- to 20-cm long part of
the large intestine, located between the
sigma and the anal canal. It is located to the
front of the sacrum, and passes through the
pelvic diaphragm that separates the rectum
into the pelvic and anal part. The shape of the
rectum is in lower mammals straight.
The stomach is supplied by a rich system of arteries derived
from the celiac trunk, the first major visceral branch of the
abdominal aorta. The lesser curvature of the stomach is supplied
by the left and right gastric artery, which are branches of the
celiac trunk and the common hepatic artery respectively.
The stomach is
supplied by a rich
system of arteries
derived from the
celiac trunk, the first
major visceral branch
of the abdominal aorta.
The lesser curvature of
the stomach is
supplied by the left and
right gastric artery,
which are branches of
the celiac trunk and
the common hepatic
artery respectively.
Histologically, most of the
stomach wall
contains gastric glands (or
fundic glands). These consist
primarily of parietal cells and
chief cells. The fundic glands
also contain mucous neck
cells and stem cells. Gastric
parietal cells (oxyntic cells)
secrete acid, by pumping
chloride and hydrogen ions.

64. 3. Mention different parts of digestive
system. Describe the esophagus in detail
4. Name the salivary glands. Where do they
open? Describe the parotid gland in detail
The main organs that make up the digestive system (in
order of their function) are the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and
anus. Helping them along the way are the pancreas, gall
bladder and liver. The esophagus is a
muscular tube
connecting the
throat (pharynx)
with the stomach.
The esophagus is
about 8 inches long,
and is lined by moist
pink tissue called
mucosa. The
esophagus runs
behind the windpipe
(trachea) and heart,
and in front of the
spine. ... They keep
food and secretions
from going down the
windpipe.
Your esophagus is a hollow, muscular tube
that carries food and liquid from your throat to
your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus propel
food down to your stomach.
Anatomy of the salivary glands. The three
main pairs of salivary glands are the parotid
glands, the sublingual glands, and the
submandibular glands.
Each gland's major duct (Stensen's duct)
opens in the rear of the mouth cavity near
the second upper molar. The second pair,
the submaxillary glands, also called
submandibular glands, are located along the
side of the lower jawbone.
The parotid glands are a pair of mainly
serous salivary glands located below
and in front of each ear canal, draining
their secretions into the vestibule of the
mouth through the parotid duct. ... The
gland can be felt on either side, by feeling
in front of each ear, along the cheek, and
below the angle of the mandible.

65. 5.Name the parts of extra hepatic biliary
apparatus. Describe the anatomy of the
liver
The extrahepatic biliary tree consists of
the bifurcation of the left and right hepatic
ducts, the common hepatic duct, the CBD, the
cystic duct, and the gallbladder
The liver is located in the upper right-hand portion
of the abdominal cavity, beneath the diaphragm,
and on top of the stomach, right kidney, and
intestines. Shaped like a cone, the liver is a dark
reddish-brown organ that weighs about 3 pounds

66. 7.Describe the duodenum 8.Name the parts of digestive system .And
describe stomach in detail.
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It
is located between the stomach and the middle part of
the small intestine, or jejunum. After foods mix with
stomach acid, they move into the duodenum, where they
mix with bile from the gallbladder and digestive juices
from the pancreas
A characteristic feature of the duodenum is the
Brunner's glands embedded in the submucosa.
These produce – amongst others – mucous secret
containing bicarbonate which serves to neutralize the
gastric acid. Furthermore crypts of Lieberkuhn lie
between the villi. Paneth cells are found in the lumen of
these crypts.
duodenum, the first part of the small intestine,
which receives partially digested food from
the stomach and begins the absorption of
nutrients.
Located inferior to the stomach, the duodenum
is a 10-12 inch (25-30 cm) long C-shaped,
hollow tube. The duodenum is a part of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract, attached to the
pyloric sphincter of the stomach on its superior
end and to the jejunum of the small intestine on
its inferior end.
The stomach is a muscular organ located on the
left side of the upper abdomen. ... The stomach
secretes acid and enzymes that digest food.
Ridges of muscle tissue called rugae line the
stomach. The stomach muscles contract
periodically, churning food to enhance digestion.

67. 9. Name the location, surfaces, borders, blood
supply and applied anatomy of liver.
6. Describe the pharynx
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Located in the right upper quadrant of the
abdominal cavity, it rests just below the
diaphragm, to the right of the stomach and
overlies the gallbladder. The liver is connected
to two large blood vessels: the hepatic artery
and the portal vein.
Vein: Hepatic vein and hepatic portal vein
Artery: Hepatic artery
The liver has three surfaces: diaphragmatic,
visceral and posterior surfaces. The liver has
two hemilivers, the large right hemiliver and the
smaller left hemiliver, which is generally
described in two ways, by morphologic anatomy
and by functional anatomy.
Superior, anterior, posterior and right
surfaces of the liver are continuous with each
other and are related to the diaphragm and
anterior abdominal wall. The anterior surface is
separated from the inferior (visceral) surface by a
sharp anterior (inferior) border that is clinically
palpable on deep inspiration.

68. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Parotid gland
2. Submandibular gland
3. Oesophagus
4. Histology of oesophagus
The function of the parotid gland and other two
major salivary glands is to produce and secrete
saliva, a substance that helps break food down
so you can digest it properly.
either of a pair of large salivary glands
situated just in front of each ear.
1.either of a pair of salivary glands
situated below the parotid glands.
The submandibular gland produces saliva,
which moistens the mouth and aids in
chewing, swallowing, digestion, and helps
to keep the mouth and teeth clean.
Unstimulated, the submandibular glands
provide the majority of saliva to the mouth.
On stimulation, the parotid gland takes over,
producing the majority of saliva.
The esophagus is a muscular tube about ten
inches (25 cm.) long, extending from the
hypopharynx to the stomach. The esophagus lies
posterior to the trachea and the heart and passes
through the mediastinum and the hiatus, an
opening in the diaphragm, in its descent from the
thoracic to the abdominal cavity.
It contains oesophageal glands, that secrete
mucus to help ease the passage of swallowed
food. The muscularis externa layer in the top
third of the oesophagus contains skeletal
muscle, in the middle, it is a mixture of smooth
and skeletal muscle, and in the bottom third it is
entirely smooth.
The epithelium, lamina propria, and
muscularis mucosa. The thick epithelial layer
lines the lumen of the esophagus and consists
of stratified squamous non-keratinized cells,
which has their typical appearance of flat,
overlapping cells that are more flat as they
move away from the base or basal cell layer.

69. 5. Describe the blood supply of stomach
6. Stomach bed
7. Soft palate
8. Duodenum
The stomach is supplied by a rich system
of arteries derived from the celiac trunk,
the first major visceral branch of the
abdominal aorta. The lesser curvature of the
stomach is supplied by the left and right
gastric artery, which are branches of the
celiac trunk and the common hepatic artery
respectively.
The stomach bed refers to the structures
upon which the stomach rests in
mammals. These include the pancreas,
spleen, left kidney, left suprarenal gland,
transverse colon and its mesocolon, and the
diaphragm. The term was introduced around
1896 by Philip Polson of the Catholic
University School of Medicine, Dublin.
soft palate, also called palatal velum,
velum, or muscular palate, in mammals,
structure consisting of muscle and
connective tissue that forms the roof of the
posterior (rear) portion of the oral cavity. ...
The soft palate is continuous with the hard
palate, which forms in the anterior roof of
the mouth.
The duodenum is the first part of the small
intestine. It is located between the stomach
and the middle part of the small intestine, or
jejunum. After foods mix with stomach acid,
they move into the duodenum, where they
mix with bile from the gallbladder and
digestive juices from the pancreas.

70. 9. Peritoneum and its function 10. Vermiform appendix
11. Mention the differences between small and
large intestine
12. Describe pancreas
The peritoneum serves to support the organs of
the abdomen and acts as a conduit for the
passage of nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics.
Although the peritoneum is thin, it is made of 2
layers with a potential space between them
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that is
highly vascular. The mesentery is a continuation
of the peritoneum that is made of connective
tissue. It secretes serous fluid, providing
lubrication and decreasing the friction
between abdominal organs.
The vermiform appendix is a narrow, worm-
shaped structure that protrudes from the
posteromedial aspect of the cecum, 2 cm (or
less) below the insertion of the ileum into the
cecum. The appendix is located at the proximal
root of the outer tinea coli of the cecum.
The pancreas is a long, flat gland that lies in
the abdomen behind the stomach. It
produces enzymes that are released into the
small intestine to help with digestion. It also
contains clusters of cells called islets.
What is inferior surface liver?
The inferior surface is related to
the hepatic flexure (the area where the
vertical ascending (right) colon takes a
right-angle turn to become the horizontal
transverse colon), right kidney,
transverse colon, duodenum and
stomach. The gallbladder straddles the
undersurfaces of liver segments IVB and
V.

71. 13 . Name the blood vessels supplying
the rectum
14. Difference between jejunum and ileum
15. Describe the interior of anal canal
16. Inferior/visceral surface of liver
What blood vessels supply the rectum?
The rectum receives arterial supply through
three main arteries:
•Superior rectal artery - terminal continuation of the
inferior mesenteric artery.
•Middle rectal artery - branch of the internal iliac
artery.
•Inferior rectal artery - branch of the internal
pudendal artery.
Vasculature. The three main arterial trunks that
provide blood supply to the rectum are the
superior, middle, and inferior hemorrhoidal
arteries, which are also referred to as rectal
arteries
Structure. In humans, the anal canal
is approximately 2.5 to 4 cm long, from
the anorectal junction to the anus. It is
directed downwards and backwards. It is
surrounded by inner involuntary and outer
voluntary sphincters which keep the
lumen closed in the form of an
anteroposterior slit.
The visceral surface or inferior surface of the liver
is concave, directed downward, backward, and to
the left. Deep fissures and the impressions of the
adjacent organs make this surface uneven. These two
surfaces join antero-laterally in acute angle forming the
inferior margin.

72. 17. Name the peritoneal folds of liver
18. Name different lobes of liver
19 . Nerve supply of small intestine
20. Name the Papillae of tongue.
22. Name the parts of large intestine.
Anatomically the liver has four
lobes: right, left, caudate, and
quadrate. The quadrate lobe is
located on the inferior surface of
the right lobe.
The nervous system of the small intestine is made up of
the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic fibers
originate from the Vagus nerve and control secretions
and motility.
Papillae are the tiny raised protrusions on the tongue that
contain taste buds. The four types of papillae are filiform,
fungiform, foliate, and circumvallate. Except for the filiform,
these papillae allow us to differentiate between sweet, salty,
bitter, sour, and umami (or savory) flavors.
The large intestine has four parts: cecum, colon, rectum,
and anal canal. Partly digested food moves through the
cecum into the colon, where water and some nutrients
and electrolytes are removed.

73. UNIT IX
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
SHORT ESSAY
1. The ureter
2. Histology of kidney
The ureters are bilateral thin (3 to 4 mm) tubular
structures that connect the kidneys to the urinary
bladder, transporting urine from the renal pelvis into the
bladder. The muscular layers are responsible for the
peristaltic activity that the ureter uses to move the urine
from the kidneys to the bladder
The abdominal
portion of the
ureter lies on the
anterior surface
of the psoas
muscle,
The kidney is organised into many lobes,
organised in a pyramidal structure, where the
outer portion is made up of cortex, and the
inner portion is made up of the medulla. The
kidney contains about 1 million functional units
called nephrons, which are continuous with a
system of collecting tubules.

74. 3. Urethra 4. Urinary bladder
The urethra is the tube that allows urine to
pass out of the body. In men, it's a long tube
that runs through the penis. It also carries
semen in men. In women, it's short and is just
above the vagina. Urethral problems may
happen due to aging, illness, or injury.
The female urethra is a relatively simple tubular
structure that has the sole purpose of conducting
urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. It is
a short structure without complex investing structures
The male urethra originates at the bladder neck and
terminates at the urethral meatus on the glans penis.
It is roughly 15-25 cm long in the adult and forms an "S"
curve when viewed from a median sagittal plane in an
upright, flaccid position (see the image below).
The urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis,
just above and behind the pubic bone. When empty,
the bladder is about the size and shape of a pear.
Urine is made in the kidneys and travels down two
tubes called ureters to the bladder. The bladder
stores urine, allowing urination to be infrequent and
controlled
The urinary bladder functions as a storage vessel
for urine to delay the frequency of urination. It
is one of the most elastic organs of the body and
can increase its volume greatly to accommodate up
to 800 mL of urine at maximum capacity in adults.

75. 5. Relations of right kidney 6. Male urethra
Relationship: Anteriorly the right kidney is related to the Liver,
duodenum and hepatic flexure of ascending colon. Anteriorly the left
kidney is related to Stomach, Jejunum, Pancreas, Spleen and
descending Colon. ... Right Kidney is related to the 12th rib posteriorly
resting on diaphragm.
The male urethra is a narrow
fibromuscular tube that conducts urine
and semen from the bladder and
ejaculatory ducts, respectively, to the
exterior of the body (see the image below).
Although the male urethra is a single
structure, it is composed of a
heterogeneous series of segments:
prostatic, membranous, and spongy.
about 18 to 20 cm
Because the
urethra is
anatomically
linked with the
reproductive
structures, its
characteristics in
males are quite
different from
those in females.
The male's
urethra is about
18 to 20 cm (7 to
8 inches)
long and passes
along the length of
the penis before
emptying.

76. 7. Describe the macroscopic structure
of kidney
8. Describe nephron in detail.
nephron, functional unit of the kidney, the structure
that actually produces urine in the process of removing
waste and excess substances from the blood. There are
about 1,000,000 nephrons in each human kidney. ... The
capsule and glomerulus together constitute the renal
corpuscle.
10. Describe urinary bladder in detail .Add a
note on its applied anatomy.
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77. 9. Describe the kidney under following headings–location,
shape, external features, coverings, relations and blood
supply.
The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs on
either side of your spine, below your ribs and
behind your belly {location}
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each
about the size of a fist. They are located just below
the rib cage, one on each side of your
spine.{shape}
[FEATURES}
•A - controlling ACID-base balance.
•W - controlling WATER balance.
•E - maintaining ELECTROLYTE balance.
•T - removing TOXINS and waste products from the
body.
•B - controlling BLOOD PRESSURE.
•E - producing the hormone ERYTHROPOIETIN.
•D - activating vitamin D.
{COVERING}renal capsule, thin membranous sheath
that covers the outer surface of each kidney. The capsule
is composed of tough fibres, chiefly collagen and elastin
(fibrous proteins), that help to support the kidney mass
and protect the vital tissue from injury.
{Relationship:} Anteriorly the right kidney is
related to the Liver, duodenum and hepatic
flexure of ascending colon. Anteriorly the left
kidney is related to Stomach, Jejunum, Pancreas,
Spleen and descending Colon. Adrenal gland is
superior and anterior to the Kidneys.
{blood supply}
xygenated blood comes to the kidneys
from the right and left renal arteries off
the abdominal aorta. Deoxygenated
blood leaves the kidneys via the right and
left renal veins that run into to the inferior
vena cava.

78. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Name the parts of a
nephron
2. Name the different parts
of urinary system
3. Trigone of bladder
4. Mention the coverings of kidney
•renal corpuscle.
•proximal convoluted tubule.
•loop of Henle.
•distal convoluted tubule.
The organs of the urinary system
include the kidneys, renal
pelvis, ureters, bladder and
urethra.
The trigone is the neck of the bladder.
It's a triangular piece of tissue located in
the lower part of your bladder. It's near the
opening of your urethra, the duct that
carries urine from your bladder outside of
your body. When this area becomes
inflamed, it's known as trigonitis.
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renal capsule, thin
membranous sheath that
covers the outer surface
of each kidney. The
capsule is composed of
tough fibres, chiefly
collagen and elastin
(fibrous proteins), that
help to support the
kidney mass and protect
the vital tissue from
injury.
5. Draw a labeled diagram
of nephron
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6. Mention the
constrictions of ureter
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79. 7. Mention 2 important relations of urinary
bladder in females
8. Name the parts of male urethra
In males, the base of the bladder lies between the
rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the
prostate, and separated from the rectum by the recto-
vesical pouch. In females, the bladder sits inferior to
the uterus and anterior to the vagina; thus its
maximum capacity is lower than in males.
Artery: Superior vesical artery; Inferior vesical ...
Nerve: Vesical nervous plexus
Vein: Vesical venous plexus

80. UNIT X
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
SHORT ESSAYS
1. Describe the pituitary gland in detail
2. Name the endocrine glands. Describe the thyroid
gland in detail
The pituitary gland is a part of your endocrine system.
Its main function is to secrete hormones into your
bloodstream. These hormones can affect other organs
and glands, especially your: thyroid. reproductive
organs.
Structure. The pituitary gland, in humans, is a
pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony
enclosure called the sella turcica. It is composed
of two lobes: anterior and posterior, with the
intermediate lobe that joins the two regions.
In many animals, these three lobes are distinct.
While many parts of the body make
hormones, the major glands that make up the
endocrine system are the:
•hypothalamus.
•pituitary.
•thyroid.
•parathyroids.
•adrenals.
•pineal body.
•the ovaries.
•the testes.
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{thyroid gland }

81. 3. Describe the pancreas 4. Thyroid gland
The pancreas is a long, flat gland
that lies in the abdomen behind the
stomach. It produces enzymes that
are released into the small intestine to
help with digestion. It also contains
clusters of cells called islets.
The pancreas has two main
functions: an exocrine function
that helps in digestion and an
endocrine function that regulates
blood sugar.
The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that sits low on
the front of the neck. Your thyroid lies below your Adam's
apple, along the front of the windpipe. The thyroid has two
side lobes, connected by a bridge (isthmus) in the middle.
When the thyroid is its normal size, you can't feel it.
What is the main function of thyroid gland?
The thyroid gland is a vital hormone gland: It plays a major
role in the metabolism, growth and development of the
human body. It helps to regulate many body functions by
constantly releasing a steady amount of thyroid hormones
into the bloodstream

82. 5. Functions of adrenal gland 6. Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands produce hormones that help regulate
your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure,
response to stress and other essential functions.
Adrenal glands are composed of two parts — the cortex
and the medulla — which are each responsible for
producing different hormones.
Function of the parathyroid glands
Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid
hormone, which plays a key role in the
regulation of calcium levels in the blood.
Precise calcium levels are important in the
human body, since small changes can
cause muscle and nerve problems

83. 7. Relations of thyroid gland 8 . Describe pancreas under following heading-location,
parts, importance relations and histology
In its anatomic position, the thyroid gland
lies posterior to the sternothyroid and sternohyoid
muscles, wrapping around the cricoid cartilage and
tracheal rings. It is located inferior to the laryngeal
thyroid cartilage, typically corresponding to the
vertebral levels C5-T1.
{LOCATION}
Your pancreas sits behind your stomach and in front of
your spine. Your gallbladder, liver and spleen surround your
pancreas. The right side of your body contains the head of
your pancreas. This narrow organ lies along the first
segment of your small intestine, called the duodenum
{PARTS OF PANCREAS}
FOUR MAIN PARTS
•Head - The head is the widest part of the pancreas.
The head of the pancreas is found in the right side of
abdomen, nestled in the curve of the duodenum (first
part of the small intestine).
•Neck - The neck is the thin section of the gland
between the head and the body of the pancreas.
•Body - The body is the middle part of the pancreas
between the neck and the tail. The superior
mesenteric artery and vein run behind this part of the
pancreas.
•Tail - The tail is the thin tip of the pancreas in the left
side of the abdomen, in close proximity to the spleen.
The pancreas is divided into lobules by
connective tissue septae. Lobules are
composed largely of grape-like clusters of
exocrine cells called acini, which secrete
digestive enzymes.

84. SHORT ANSWERS
1 . Name the endocrine glands
2. Mention the parts of pituitary gland
3. Mention the types of cells found in
anterior pituitary
4. Name 2 hormones produced by neurohyphophysis
•hypothalamus.
•pituitary.
•thyroid.
•parathyroids.
•adrenals.
•pineal body.
•the ovaries.
•the testes.
In most species the pituitary gland is
divided into three lobes: the anterior
lobe, the intermediate lobe, and the
posterior lobe
The pituitary is divided into three sections-the
anterior lobe which constitute the majority of
the pituitary mass and is composed primarily of
five hormone-producing cell types
(thyrotropes, lactotropes, corticotropes,
somatotropes and gonadotropes)
The neurohypophysis is the structural foundation of
a neuro-humoral system coordinating fluid balance
and reproductive function through the action of two
peptide hormones: vasopressin and oxytocin.
5. Name any 4 hormones produced by pituitary gland
The major hormones produced by the pituitary
gland are:
•ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. ...
•FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone. ...
•LH: Luteinizing hormone. ...
•GH: Growth hormone. ...
•PRL: Prolactin. ...
•TSH: Thyroid-stimulating hormone.
6. Name 2 arteries supplying the thyroid gland
The superior thyroid artery (STA) arising from
the external carotid artery (ECA), and the
inferior thyroid artery (ITA) branching from the
thyrocervical trunk create the blood supply to the
thyroid gland.

85. 7. Name 2 ovarian hormones
8. Name the hormones secreted by
thyroid gland
The major hormones secreted by the ovaries
are oestrogen and progesterone, both important
hormones in the menstrual cycle.
The thyroid gland uses iodine from food to
make two thyroid
hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4). It also stores these thyroid
hormones and releases them as they are
needed. The hypothalamus and the
pituitary gland, which are located in the
brain, help control the thyroid gland.
9. Name the hormones secreted by
placenta
The placenta produces two steroid
hormones – oestrogen and
progesterone. Progesterone acts
to maintain pregnancy by
supporting the lining of the uterus
(womb), which provides the
environment for the fetus and the
placenta to grow.
10. Mention the blood supply of pancreas
Corporocaudal segment of human pancreas is
supplied with blood by splenic artery. Branches of
splenic artery, which extend to the body and to the
tail of the gland include: dorsal pancreatic artery,
inferior pancreatic artery, greater pancreatic artery,
artery to tail of pancreas, and pancreatic branches.

86. 11. Describe islets of langerhans 12. Name the disorders of thyroid gland.
13. Parts of thyroid gland.
Several different disorders can arise when your
thyroid produces too much hormone
(hyperthyroidism) or not enough
(hypothyroidism). Four common disorders of
the thyroid are Hashimoto's thyroiditis,
Graves' disease, goiter, and thyroid
nodules.

87. UNIT XI
THEREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
INCLUDING BREAST
SHORT ESSAYS
1 .Name the parts of the female
reproductive tract. Describe the anatomy
of uterus
2..Describe the anatomy of ovary
A female's internal reproductive organs are the vagina,
uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
The uterus has four major regions: the fundus is the broad curved upper
area in which the fallopian tubes connect to the uterus; the body, the main
part of the uterus, starts directly below the level of the fallopian tubes and
continues downward until the uterine walls and cavity begin to narrow;
Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure
about the size and shape of an almond,
about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1
cm thick. The ovaries are located in shallow
depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on
each side of the uterus, in the lateral walls
of the pelvic cavity.

88. 3. Describe the uterus and its ligaments 4. Describe the female reproductive system
There are two round ligaments of the uterus, one on
either side. Each is about 4 inches (10 centimeters) long
While the broad and round ligaments of the
uterus attach to the body of the uterus, there are
three other ligaments which attach to the second
component of the uterus, the cervix. These are the
pubocervical, transverse cervical and uterosacral
ligaments.
The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular
organ of the female reproductive system.
The uterus is divided into the fundus,
lower uterine segment, and cervix uteri. ...
The uterosacral ligaments are
anteriorly attached to the cervix uteri.
The uterosacral ligaments are posteriorly
attached to sacral vertebrae.
The uterus is a hollow muscular organ located in the
female pelvis between the bladder and rectum. ... Once
the egg has left the ovary it can be fertilized and implant
itself in the lining of the uterus. The main function of the
uterus is to nourish the developing fetus prior to birth.
The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian
tubes, and ovaries. The vagina allows for sexual
intercourse and birth, and is connected to the uterus at the
cervix. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo
which develops into the foetus.

89. 5. Supports of uterus 6. Fallopian tube
The uterus is primarily supported by the pelvic
diaphragm, perineal body, and urogenital
diaphragm. Secondarily, it is supported by
ligaments, including the peritoneal ligament
and the broad ligament of uterus.
Lymph: Body and cervix to internal iliac lymph
...
Artery: Ovarian artery and uterine artery
Vein: Uterine veins
The Fallopian tubes, also known as uterine
tubes, salpinges (singular salpinx), or oviducts,
are tubes that stretch from the ovaries to the
uterus, in the human female reproductive
system. In other mammals they are called
oviducts. A fertilized egg passes through the
Fallopian tubes from the ovaries to the uterus
The fallopian tubes are bilateral conduits
between the ovaries and the uterus in the
female pelvis. They function as channels for
oocyte transport and fertilization.

90. 7. Spermatogenesis 8. Prostate
Spermatogenesis is the production of
sperm from the primordial germ cells. ...
They remain there until maturity, at which
time the sex cords hollow out to form the
seminiferous tubules, and the epithelium of
the tubules differentiates into the Sertoli
cells.
Based on germ cell
development and
morphological
characteristics as
seen with the
electron
microscope,
spermatogenesis in
the testicular
lobules can be
classified into five
stages: (1)
spermatogonial,
(2) primary
spermatocyte, (3)
secondary
spermatocyte, (4)
spermatid, and (5)
spermatozoon.
The prostate is a gland in men. It helps make
semen, the fluid that contains sperm. The
prostate surrounds the tube that carries urine
away from the bladder and out of the body. A
young man's prostate is about the size of a
walnut. It slowly grows larger with age.
What does the prostate do for a man?
The prostate produces a fluid that mixes
with sperm (from the testicles) to make
semen. The fluid is kept in a tube-shaped
gland that sits behind the bladder. This gland
is called the seminal vesicle. During sex, the
muscle tissue helps force (ejaculate) prostate
fluid and sperm into the urethra.

91. 9. Oogenesis 10. Describe the structure of mammary gland
11. Explain the location and structure of ovary.
oogenesis, in the human female reproductive
system, growth process in which the
primary egg cell (or ovum) becomes a
mature ovum. ... These cells, known as the
primary ova, number around 400,000. The
primary ova remain dormant until just prior to
ovulation, when an egg is released from the
ovary.
The mammary gland structure is divided into
three parts: the skin, the parenchyma, and
the stroma. Skin: It consists of a nipple and
areola. ... 15 to 20 lactiferous ducts pierce the
nipple. The nipple contains circular and
longitudinal smooth muscle fibers and is rich
in the nerve supply.
Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure about the size and shape
of an almond, about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick.
The ovaries are located in shallow depressions, called
ovarian fossae, one on each side of the uterus, in the lateral
walls of the pelvic cavity

92. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Name the internal organs of female
reproductive system
2. Mention the parts of uterus
3. Name 4 ligaments of the uterus
4. Name the layers of wall of uterus
A female's internal reproductive organs are
the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
The uterus is divided into 3 main parts: the
fundus, body, and cervix
Ligaments of the uterus
•Broad ligament.
•Uterovesical fold.
•Rectovaginal fold.
The thick wall of the uterus has 3 layers:
•The endometrium is the inner layer that lines the
uterus. It is made up of glandular cells that make
secretions.
•The myometrium is the middle and thickest layer of
the uterus wall. It is made up mostly of smooth
muscle.
•The perimetrium is the outer serous layer of the
uterus.
5. Name parts of fallopian tube
From there there are three named parts of the Fallopian
tube; the isthmus, the ampulla, and the infundibulum.
The isthmus sits next to the opening of the Fallopian tube
into the uterus. It connects to the ampulla (Latin: flask),
which curves over the ovary and is the most common site
of human fertilization.
Artery: tubal branches of ovarian artery,
Latin: Tuba uterina
6. Mention the boundaries of ovarian fossa
This ovarian fossa has the following
boundaries:
•superiorly: by the external iliac artery and vein.
•anteriorly and inferiorly: by the broad ligament of
the uterus.
•posteriorly: by the ureter, internal iliac artery and
vein.
•inferiorly: by the obturator nerve, artery and vein.
7. Mention the layers of scrotum
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anatomyofthesc
rotum-150608160312-lva1-app6892/95/anatomy-
of-the-scrotum-4-638.jpg?cb=1433779461

93. 8. Graffian follicle
9. Ductus deferns
10. Name the parts of male urethra.
11. Draw a diagram on the structure of uterus.
1.a fluid-filled structure in the mammalian
ovary within which an ovum develops prior
to ovulation.
The ductus deferens, or vas deferens, is a
fibromuscular tube that is continuation of the
epididymis and is an excretory duct of the
testis. Each ductus is 30-45 cm in length and
serves to transport sperms cells from the
respective epididymis to the ipsilateral ejaculatory
duct.
The ductus deferens, or vas deferens, is a
fibromuscular tube that is continuation of the
epididymis and is an excretory duct of the testis.
Each ductus is 30-45 cm in length and serves to
transport sperms cells from the respective
epididymis to the ipsilateral ejaculatory duct.
What happens to sperm in ductus deferens?
The male urethra is often divided into 3
segments on the basis of its investing
structures: prostatic urethra, membranous
urethra, and spongy (or penile) urethra.