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3.  tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. a tissue is
an ensemble of similar cells and from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. these
are called tissues because of their identical functioning. organs are then formed by the functional
grouping together of multiple tissues.
 the study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology. the classical
tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned,
the histological stain, and the optical microscope. in the last couple of decades, developments
in electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced the
detail that can be observed in tissues. with these tools, the classical appearances of tissues can be
examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of clinical diagnosis and prognosis.

4. "Connective tissue" is a fibrous and most diverse tissue. It is one of the four traditional classes of
tissues (the others being epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue). Connective Tissue (CT) is found
throughout the body. In fact the whole framework of the skeleton and the different specialized
connective tissues from the crown of the head to the toes determine the form of the body and act
as an entity. CT has 3 main components: cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix, all embedded in the
body fluids. Fibroblasts are the cells responsible for the production of connective tissue. The
interaction of the fibers, the extracellular matrix and the water, together, form the pliable connective
tissue as a whole. Connective tissue makes up a variety of physical structures including tendons
and the connective framework of fibers in muscles, capsules and ligaments around joints, cartilage,
bone, adipose tissue, blood and lymphatic tissue. CT is classified into three subtypes; Embryonic
CT, Proper CT, and Special CT. The Proper CT subtype includes dense regular CT, dense irregular
CT, and loose CT. The Special CT subtype includes cartilage, bone, adipose tissue, blood,
hematopoietic tissue (tissue that makes blood cells) and lymphatic tissue. as well as the most
abundant protein in mammals, Type-I collagen, making up about 25% of the total protein content.

5.  Functions of connective tissue
 Storage of energy
 Protection of organs
 Providing structural framework for the body
 Connection of body tissues
 connects epithelial tissues to the muscle tissues

6.  Cells are spread through an extracellular fluid.
 Ground Substance - A clear, colorless, and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and
proteoglycans to fix the bodywater and the collagen fibers in the intercellular spaces. Ground
substance slows the spread of pathogens.
Fibers. Not all types of connective tissues are fibrous though. Examples are adipose tissue and blood. Adipose tissue gives
"mechanical cushioning" to our body. Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue, groups of adipose
cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place (for
example the sole of the foot). The matrix of blood is plasma.
 Both the ground substance and proteins(fibers) create the matrix for connective tissue.

7.  Tissue
 Purpose
 Components
 Location
 Collagenous fibers
 -
 Alpha polypeptide chains
 tendon, ligament, skin, cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, gut, and
intervertebral disc.
 Elastic fibers
 -
 elastic microfibrill & elastin
 extracellular matrix
 Reticular fibers
 -
 -
 liver, bone marrow, lymphatic organs

8.  Various connective tissue conditions have been identified; these can be
both inherited and environmental.
 Marfan syndrome - a genetic disease causing abnormal fibrillin.
 Scurvy - caused by a dietary deficiency in vitamin C, leading to
abnormal collagen.
 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome - deficient type III collagen- a genetic disease
causing progressive deterioration of collagens, with different EDS types
affecting different sites in the body, such as joints, heart valves, organ walls,
arterial walls, etc.
 Loeys-Dietz syndrome - a genetic disease related to Marfan syndrome, with
an emphasis on vascular deterioration.
 Pseudoxanthoma elasticum - an autosomal recessive hereditary disease,
caused by calcification and fragmentation of elastic fibres, affecting the
skin, the eyes and the cardiovascular system.
 Systemic lupus erythematosus - a chronic, multisystem, inflammatory disorder
of probable autoimmune etiology, occurring predominantly in young
women.
 Osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease) - caused by insufficient
production of good quality collagen to produce healthy, strong bones.
 Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva - disease of the connective tissue,
caused by a defective gene which turns connective tissue into bone.
 Spontaneous pneumothorax - collapsed lung, believed to be related to
subtle abnormalities in connective tissue.
 Sarcoma - a neoplastic process originating within connective tissue.
 Hemangiopericytoma - a neoplastic process.

9.  For microscopic viewing the majority of the
connective tissue staining techniques color
tissue fibers in contrasting shades. Collagen
may be differentially stained by any of the
following techniques:
 Van Gieson's stain
 Masson's Trichrome stain
 Mallory's Aniline Blue stain
 Azocarmine stain
 Krajian's Aniline Blue stain
 Eosin

10. Muscle tissue is one of four basic biological tissues present in animals. It is a soft tissue that
composes muscles.
 Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored
by tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and
is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and
in maintaining posture. Though this postural control is
generally maintained as an unconscious reflex, the muscles
responsible react to conscious control like non-postural
muscles. An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal
muscle and an average adult female is made up of 36% (as
a percentage of body mass).
 Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the
walls of organs and structures such as
the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethr
a, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin
(in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal
muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.

11.  In vertebrates, there is a third muscle tissue
recognized:
 Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but is
more akin in structure to skeletal muscle, and is found
only in the heart.
 Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that
they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly
regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has
neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in
regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at
branching, irregular angles (called intercalated
discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short,
intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer
or even near-permanent contractions.

13. smooth muscle cardiac muscle skeletal muscle
Anatomy
Neuromuscular junction None None Present
Fibers fusiform, short (<0,4 mm) branching cylindrical, long (<15 cm)
Mitochondria few numerous many to few (by type)
Nuclei 1 1 few
Sarcomeres none present, max. length 2,6 µm present, max. length 3,7 µm
Syncytium none (independent cells) none (but functional as such) present
Sarcoplasmic reticulum little elaborated moderately elaborated highly elaborated
ATPase little moderate abundant
Physiology
Self-regulation spontaneous action (slow) yes (rapid) none (requires nerve stimulus)
Response to stimulus unresponsive "all-or-nothing" "all-or-nothing"
Action potential yes none yes
Arbeitsbereich Kraft/Längen-Kurve ist variabel im Anstieg der Kraft/Längen-Kurve am Maximum der Kraft/Längen-Kurve

15.  Type I, slow oxidative, slow twitch, or "red" muscle is dense
with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin,
giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color. It can
carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity.
› Type I muscle fiber are sometimes broken down into Type I and
Type Ic categories, as a result of recent research.
 Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major kinds that are, in
order of increasing contractile speed
› Type IIa, which, like slow muscle, is aerobic, rich in
mitochondria and capillaries and appears red.
 Type IIx (also known as type IId), which is less dense in
mitochondria and myoglobin. This is the fastest muscle type in
humans. It can contract more quickly and with a greater
amount of force than oxidative muscle, but can sustain only
short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction
becomes painful (often incorrectly attributed to a build-up
of lactic acid). N.B. in some books and articles this muscle in
humans was, confusingly, called type IIB.

16. › Type IIb, which is anaerobic, glycolytic,
"white" muscle that is even less dense in
mitochondria and myoglobin. In small
animals like rodents this is the major fast
muscle type, explaining the pale color of
their flesh.

18.  Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is
divided into two sub-groups; the single-unit (unitary) and
multiunit smooth muscle. Within single-unit smooth muscle
tissues, the autonomic nervous system innervates a single cell
within a sheet or bundle and the action potential is
propagated by gap junctions to neighboring cells such that
the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium (i.e., a
multinucleate mass of cytoplasm that is not separated into
cells). Multiunit smooth muscle tissues innervate individual
cells; as such, they allow for fine control and gradual
responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle.
 Smooth muscle is found within the walls of blood vessels (such
smooth muscle specifically being termed vascular smooth
muscle) such as in the tunica media layer of large (aorta) and
small arteries, arterioles and veins. Smooth muscle is also found
in lymphatic vessels, theurinary bladder, uterus (termed uterine
smooth muscle), male and female reproductive
tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, arrector pili
of skin, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye. The structure and
function is basically the same in smooth muscle cells in
different organs, but the inducing stimuli differ substantially, in
order to perform individual effects in the body at individual
times. In addition, theglomeruli of the kidneys contain smooth
muscle-like cells called mesangial cells.

20.  1. What are muscle tissues? How is the function of this tissue related to the
typical characteristics of its cells?
 = Muscle tissues are tissues made of cells able to perform contractions and
thus to generate movement.
 The function of the muscle tissue is to pull bones (skeletal striated muscle), to
contract and move viscera and vessels (smooth muscle) and to make the
heart to beat (cardiac striated muscle). The muscle cells have internal
structures called sarcomeres where there are myosin and actin molecules
disposed to create contraction and distension (movement).

 2. What is the typical biological function of the connective tissues? How is this
function associated to the main features of its cells?
 = The typical function of the connective tissues is to fill empty spaces among
other body tissues.
 This function is related to the great capability of the cells of the connective
tissue to secrete substances that constitute extracellular material, like
collagen and elastic fibers, creating a significant spacing between these
cells.(There are other important biological features of the connective tissues,
such as substance transportation, defense of the organism, etc.)
 3. Of which type of tissue are cartilages and bones made?
 = Bones and cartilages, tissues with great amount of intercellular material,
are formed of connective tissue.

21.  4. Are the cells of the connective tissue far or near to the
others?
 = The relative great spacing between cells is a typical
feature of the connective tissue. There are much
intercellular material generally secreted by the tissue cells.
 5. What are the general functions of the connective
tissues?
 = The main functions of the connective tissues are:
supporting and filling of spaces; cellular nutrition;
energetic storage (fats); hematopoiesis (formation of
blood, blood cells and blood components); immune
defense (specialized cells).
 6. What is connective tissue proper?
 = The name connective tissue proper is used to designate
the connective tissue that fills interstitial spaces as
opposed to the specialized connective tissues (blood,
bones, cartilage, adipose tissue, etc.). The connective
tissue proper secretes collagen, elastin and reticular fibers.

22.  7. What are the main cells of the connective tissue proper? What is the
name given to the intercellular material that surround these cells?
 = The main cells of the connective tissue proper are the fibroblasts, cells
that secrete the intercellular material. These cells are the majority of cells
of the tissue. Fibroblasts later are transformed into fibrocytes, mature
cells with restricted secretory role.
 The intercellular substance that fills the interstice is called interstitial
matrix, or just matrix.
 Cell Tissue - Image Diversity: fibroblast fibrocyte interstitial matrix
 8. What are the three types of protein fibers of the connective tissue
proper?
 = The matrix of the connective tissue proper is made of collagen fibers,
elastic fibers and reticular fibers.
 Cell Tissue - Image Diversity: collagen fibers elastic fibers reticular fibers
 9. What is the function of the collagen fibers of the connective tissue?
 = There are different collagen types. The main function of these proteins
is to keep the shape and the structural rigidity of the tissue. (Collagen is
the most abundant protein of the human body.)


23.  10. Of which substance do elastic fibers of the connective tissue are made?
What are some functions of these fibers?
 = The elastic fibers are made of a protein called elastin.
 Elastic fibers abound in artery walls, helping the maintenance of the arterial
blood pressure in these vessels. They are also present in the lungs, providing
them with elasticity (some respiratory diseases are caused by destruction of
these fibers). In many other organs and tissues the elastic fibers are found in
the interstitial matrix.
 11. What are the reticular fibers of the connective tissue and where can they
be found?
 = The reticular fibers are very delicate interstitial fibers made of a special
type of collagen known as collagen type III. They can be found in many
organs and tissues such as in lymphnodes, in the spleen, in the liver, in blood
vessels and also covering muscle fibers.
 12. What are diseases of the connective tissue? What are some of them?
 = Diseases of the connective tissue are hereditary or acquired
diseases(many of autoimmune cause) characterized by deficiency in
structure or function of components of the connective tissue, for example,
deficiencies of collagen, elastin, etc. Some of such diseases are lupus,
dermatomyositis, cheloid, scleroderma, mixed connective tissue disease,
mucinosis and Marfan's syndrome.