Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacology of Antifungal Agents and how to take care from fungal infections. Useful Course study material for the undergraduate , postgraduate and aspirants of Pharmacy , Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry.
Amphotericin B Drug profile: By RxVichuZ! RxVichuZ
This word document, deals with Amphotericin-B(antifungal), its drug profile, and important pharmacological headings, with reference to updated textbooks and research articles.
The presentation gives an in-depth review of the Anti-fungal drugs used to treat various acute and chronic fungal infections along with their uses and MOA.
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacology of Antifungal Agents and how to take care from fungal infections. Useful Course study material for the undergraduate , postgraduate and aspirants of Pharmacy , Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry.
Amphotericin B Drug profile: By RxVichuZ! RxVichuZ
This word document, deals with Amphotericin-B(antifungal), its drug profile, and important pharmacological headings, with reference to updated textbooks and research articles.
The presentation gives an in-depth review of the Anti-fungal drugs used to treat various acute and chronic fungal infections along with their uses and MOA.
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
antitussive drugs, uses, lists, sideffect and many morefcapital
June 15 2016 Antitussives are drugs that suppress coughing, possibly by reducing the activity of the cough center in the brain. Antitussive agents are used to relieve dry cough.
antitussive drugs, uses, lists, sideffect and many morefcapital
June 15 2016 Antitussives are drugs that suppress coughing, possibly by reducing the activity of the cough center in the brain. Antitussive agents are used to relieve dry cough.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
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Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. Human fungal infections have increased dramatically
in recent years, owing mainly to advances in surgery,
cancer treatment, and critical care accompanied by
increases in the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials
and the HIV epidemic.
Fungal infections are usually more difficult to treat
than bacterial infections, because fungal organisms grow
slowly and because fungal infections often occur in
tissues that are poorly penetrated by antimicrobial agents
(e.g., devitalized or avascular tissues). Therapy of fungal
infections usually requires prolonged treatment.
3. Superficial fungal infectionsSuperficial fungal infections involve cutaneousinvolve cutaneous
surfaces (skin, nails, and hair), and mucous membranesurfaces (skin, nails, and hair), and mucous membrane
surfaces (oropharynx and vagina).surfaces (oropharynx and vagina).
DeepDeepseated or disseminated fungal infectionsseated or disseminated fungal infections causedcaused
by dimorphic fungi, the yeasts Cryptococcus neoformans,by dimorphic fungi, the yeasts Cryptococcus neoformans,
and various Candida spp. respond to a limited numberand various Candida spp. respond to a limited number
of systemic agents: amphotericin B (a polyene),of systemic agents: amphotericin B (a polyene),
flucytosine (a pyrimidine antimetabolite), the newerflucytosine (a pyrimidine antimetabolite), the newer
azoles (ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, andazoles (ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, and
voriconazole), andvoriconazole), and caspofungin (an echinocandin)caspofungin (an echinocandin)..
4. I. Antifungals damaging permeabilityI. Antifungals damaging permeability
of the cell membraneof the cell membrane
•Imidazoles:Imidazoles: Bifonazole, Clotrimazole, Econazole,Bifonazole, Clotrimazole, Econazole,
Ketoconazole, MiconazoleKetoconazole, Miconazole
•Triazoles:Triazoles: Fluconazole, Itraconazole, VoriconazoleFluconazole, Itraconazole, Voriconazole
•Allylamines:Allylamines: Terbinafine, NaftifineTerbinafine, Naftifine
•Morpholines:Morpholines: AmorolfineAmorolfine
•Thiocarbamates:Thiocarbamates: Tolciclate, TolnaftateTolciclate, Tolnaftate
•Substituted pyridonesSubstituted pyridones: Ciclopirox: Ciclopirox
•Polyene antibiotics:Polyene antibiotics: Amphotericin B, NystatinAmphotericin B, Nystatin
II. Antifungals inhibiting chitin synthesis in the cell wallII. Antifungals inhibiting chitin synthesis in the cell wall
•Caspofungin, GriseofulvinCaspofungin, Griseofulvin
III. Antifungals inhibiting synthesis of nucleic acidsIII. Antifungals inhibiting synthesis of nucleic acids
•FlucytosineFlucytosine
6. 1. Polyene antibiotics
Amphotericin B and Nystatin bind to the fungal
cell membrane component ergosterol, leading to
increased fungal cell membrane permeability and
the loss of intracellular constituents. Amphotericin has
a lesser affinity for the mammalian cell membrane
component cholesterol, but this interaction does
account for most adverse toxic effects.
Amphotericin B has activity against Candida spp.,
Cryptococcus neoformans, Blastomyces dermatitidis,
Histoplasma capsulatum, Sporothrix schenckii,
Coccidioides immitis, Paracoccidioides braziliensis,
Aspergillus spp., Penicillium marneffei, etc.
7. Amphotericin uses i.v.i.v. for treatment of Candida esopha-
gitis, rapidly progressive mucormycosis or invasive
aspergillosis. Intrathecal infusion of amphotericin B is
useful in patients with meningitis caused by Coccidioides.
Intravenous administration of amphotericin B is the
treatment of choice for mucormycosis and is used for the
initial treatment of cryptococcal meningitis, severe or
rapidly progressing histoplasmosis, blastomycosis,
and coccidioidomycosis.
Intraocular injection has
been used successfully
for fungal endophthalmitis.
8. The major acute reaction to i.v. amphotericin B is
fever and chills. Tachypnea and respiratory stridor
or modest hypotension also may occur. Patients with
preexisting cardiac or pulmonary disease may
tolerate the metabolic demands of the reaction
poorly and develop hypoxia or hypotension.
Although the reaction ends spontaneously in 30 to
45 minutes, pethidine may shorten it.
Pretreatment with oral paracetamol or use of i.v.
hydrocortisone hemisuccinate, at the start of the
infusion decreases reactions. Azotemia occurs in
80% of patients who receive amphotericin
in deep mycoses.
9. Several lipid formulations of amphotericin B – colloidal
dispersion and liposomal amphotericin B, have been
developed in an attempt to reduce the toxicity profile
of this drug and to increase its efficacy. Formulating
amphotericin with lipids alters drug distribution, with
lower levels of drug in the kidneys, reducing the
incidence of nephrotoxicity. While less toxic, the
lipid formulations are significantly more expensive
than conventional amphotericin Bamphotericin B.
Polyene bindsPolyene binds
10. Nystatin is a polyenea polyene antifungal drug with
a ring structure and a mechanism of action
similar to that of amphotericin B. Too toxic
for systemic use, nystatin is limited to the
topical treatment of superficial infections
caused by C. albicans. Infections commonly
treated by this drug include oral candidiasis
(thrush), mild esophageal candidiasis,
and vaginitis.
11. 2. Antifungal Azoles are synthetic drugs
with broad-spectrum fungistatic activity. Azoles can be
divided into two groups: the older imidazole agents
(clotrimazole, ketoconazole, miconazole) in which
the five-member azole nucleus contains two nitrogens
and the newer triazole compounds
(fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole),
in which the azole nucleus contains three nitrogens.
12. All azoles exert antifungal activity by inhibiting
cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for the
demethylation of lanosterol to ergosterol.
Reduced fungal membrane ergosterol concen-
trations result in damaged, leaky cell membranes.
The toxicity of these drugs depends on
their relative affinities for mammalian and fungal
cytochrome P450 enzymes.
The triazoles tend to have fewer side effects,
better absorption, better drug distribution in
body tissues, and fewer drug interactions.
13.
14. Fluconazole does not require an acidic
environment, as does ketoconazole, for GI absorption.
About 80 to 90% of an orally administered
dose is absorbed, yielding high serum drug levels. The
t1/2 of the drug is 27 to 37 h, permitting once-daily
dosing in patients with normal renal function. Only 11%
of the circulating drug is bound to plasma proteins.
The drug penetrates widely into most body tissues.
Cerebrospinal fluid levels are 60 to 80% of serum levels,
permitting effective treatment for fungal meningitis.
About 80% of the drug is excreted unchanged in the
urine. Dosage reductions are required in the presence
of renal insufficiency.
15. Fluconazole is very effective in the treatment of infec-
tions with most Candida spp. Thrush in the end-stage
AIDS patient, often refractory to nystatin, clotrimazole,
and ketoconazole, can usually be suppressed with oral
fluconazole. AIDS patients with esophageal candidiasis
also usually respond to fluconazole. A single 150 mg
dose has been shown to be an effective treatment for
vaginal candidiasis. A 3-day course of oral fluconazole is
an effective treatment for Candida urinary tract infection.
Stable non-neutropenic patients with candidemia
can be adequately treated with fluconazole.
16. Fluconazole may be an alternative to amphotericin B
in the initial treatment of mild cryptococcal
meningitis and coccidioidal meningitis.
A significant decrease in mortality from deep-seated
mycoses was noted among bone marrow transplant
recipients treated prophylactically with fluconazole.
Fluconazole taken prophylactically by end-stage AIDS
patients can reduce the incidence of cryptococcal
meningitis, esophageal candidiasis, and
superficial fungal infections.
17. Fluconazole is well tolerated. Asymptomatic liver enzyme
elevation has been described, and several cases of
drug associated hepatic necrosis have been reported.
Alopecia has been reported as a common adverse event
in patients receiving prolonged high-dose therapy.
Coadministration of enzyme inhibitor fluconazole with
phenytoin results in increased serum phenytoin levels.
18. Itraconazole is lipophilic and water insoluble
and requires a low gastric pH for absorption.
Oral bioavailability is variable (20 to 60%). It is
highly protein bound (99%) and is metabolized
in the liver and excreted into the bile.
Itraconazole is most useful in the long-term suppressive
treatment of disseminated histoplasmosis in AIDS and
in the oral treatment of nonmeningeal blastomycosis.
It is the drug of choice for all forms of sporotrichosis
except meningitis. Itraconazole has replaced
ketoconazole as the drug of choice in the treatment
of paracoccidioidomycosis and chromomycosis.
20. Ketoconazole (Nizoral®
) can be absorbed orally,
but it requires an acidic gastric environment.
It remains useful in the treatment of cutaneous and
mucous membrane dermatophyte and yeast infections,
but it has been replaced by the newer triazoles in the
treatment of most serious Candida infections and
disseminated mycoses. Ketoconazole is usually
effective in the treatment of thrush, but fluconazole
is superior to ketoconazole for refractory thrush.
Widespread dermatophyte
infections on skin surfaces
can be treated easily
with oral
ketoconazole.
Thrush
21. Nausea, vomiting, and anorexia occur commonly with
ketoconazole when high doses are prescribed.
Epigastric distress can be reduced by taking ketoconazole
with food. Pruritis and/or allergic dermatitis occurs in
10% of patients. Liver enzyme elevations during therapy
are usually reversible. Severe ketoconazole-
associated hepatitis is rare. At high doses,
ketoconazole causes a clinically significant
reduction in testosterone synthesis and blocks
the adrenal response to corticotrophin. Gynecomastia,
impotence, reduced sperm counts, and diminished libido
can occur in men, and prolonged drug use can result
in irregular menses in women. These hormonal effects
have led to the use of ketoconazole as a potential
adjunctive treatment for prostatic carcinoma.
22. Clotrimazole is a broad-spectrum fungistatic
imidazole drug used in the topical treatment of oral,
skin, and vaginal infections with C. albicans. It is
also employed in the treatment of infections with
cutaneous dermatophytes. Topical use results in
therapeutic drug concentrations in the epidermis
and mucous membranes; less than 10% of the
drug is systemically absorbed.
23. 3. Fluorinated pyrimidines
Flucytosine (5-flucytosine, 5-FC)
is an analogue of cytosine that was originally
synthesized for possible use as an antineoplastic
agent. 5-FC is converted to 5-fluorouracil inside the cell
by the fungal enzyme cytosine deaminase. The active
metabolite 5-fluorouracil interferes with fungal DNA
synthesis by inhibiting thymidylate synthetase.
Incorporation of these metabolites into fungal RNA
inhibits protein synthesis.
Flucytosine has a significant antifungal activity against
Candida spp. and the fungal organisms responsible
for chromomycosis.
24. 4. Allylamines – reversible noncompetitive
inhibitors of the fungal enzyme squalene
monooxygenase, which converts squalene to lanosterol.
With a decrease in lanosterol production, ergosterol
production is also diminished, affecting fungal cell
membrane synthesis and function. These agents
exhibit fungicidal activity against dermatophytes
and fungistatic activity against yeasts.
Naftifine is available for topical use only in the treat-
ment of cutaneous dermatophyte and Candida infections.
Terbinafine (Lamisil®
) is available for
topical and systemic use (oral tablet) in
the treatment of dermatophyte skin and
nail infections.
25. ClearChoice™ClearChoice™ uses two different and proven laser technologies
(Q-Switched Nd: YAG) and (Pulsed Nd: YAG) to treat onychomycosisonychomycosis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQZ7NPdwcfohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQZ7NPdwcfo
26. 5. Echinocandins
Caspofungin is a semisynthetic lipopeptide. It
inhibits the synthesis of beta-D-glucan, a cell wall
component of filamentous fungi. Caspofungin is
approved for the treatment of invasive aspergillosis
in patients not responding to
amphotericin B, and itraconazole.
Adverse effects are mediated through histamine
release: facial flushing, rash, fever, and pruritus.
Dose reductions are required in the presence of
moderate hepatic insufficiency.
27. 6. Pyridones
Ciclopirox olamine is a pyridone derivative
for the treatment of cutaneous dermatophyte
infections, cutaneous C. albicans infections,
and tinea versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur.
It interferes with fungal growth by inhibiting
macromolecule synthesis.
7. Thiocarbamates
Tolnaftate is an antifungal agent effective
in the topical treatment of dermatophyte
infections and tinea.
28. 8. Nonpolyene antibiotics
Griseofulvin is an oral fungistatic agent used
in the long-term treatment of dermatophyte infections
caused by Epidermophyton, Microsporum, and
Trichophyton spp. Produced by Penicillium
griseofulvin, it inhibits fungal growth by binding to the
microtubules responsible for mitotic spindle formation.
The drug binds to keratin precursor cells
and newly synthesized keratin in the stratum corneum
of the skin, hair, and nails, stopping the progression of
dermatophyte infection. In the treatment of ringworm
of the beard, scalp, and other skin surfaces, 4 to 6
weeks of therapy is often required.