This document discusses antifungal drugs used to treat fungal infections. It covers several classes of antifungals including polyenes like amphotericin B and nystatin that damage fungal cell membranes, azoles like fluconazole and itraconazole that inhibit ergosterol synthesis, echinocandins like caspofungin that inhibit cell wall synthesis, and other antifungals such as flucytosine and allylamines. Each drug's mechanism of action, indications, dosage, administration route, efficacy, side effects, and drug interactions are described. The document provides an in-depth overview of antifungal drug properties and use in treating various fungal diseases

1. Assoc. Prof. Ivan Lambev
e-mail: itlambev@mail.bg
Antifungal drugs

2. Human fungal infections have increased dramatically
in recent years, owing mainly to advances in surgery,
cancer treatment, and critical care accompanied by
increases in the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials
and the HIV epidemic.
Fungal infections are usually more difficult to treat
than bacterial infections, because fungal organisms grow
slowly and because fungal infections often occur in
tissues that are poorly penetrated by antimicrobial agents
(e.g., devitalized or avascular tissues). Therapy of fungal
infections usually requires prolonged treatment.

3. Superficial fungal infections involve cutaneous
surfaces (skin, nails, and hair), and mucous membrane
surfaces (oropharynx and vagina).
Deepseated or disseminated fungal infections caused
by dimorphic fungi, the yeasts Cryptococcus neoformans,
and various Candida spp. respond to a limited number
of systemic agents: amphotericin B (a polyene),
flucytosine (a pyrimidine antimetabolite), the newer
azoles (ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole, and
voriconazole), and caspofungin (an echinocandin).

4. I. Antifungals damaging permeability
of the cell membrane
•Imidazoles: Bifonazole, Clotrimazole, Econazole,
Ketoconazole, Miconazole
•Triazoles: Fluconazole, Itraconazole, Voriconazole
•Allylamines: Terbinafine, Naftifine
•Morpholines: Amorolfine
•Thiocarbamates: Tolciclate, Tolnaftate
•Substituted pyridones: Ciclopirox
•Polyene antibiotics: Amphotericin B, Nystatin
II. Antifungals inhibiting chitin synthesis in the cell wall
•Caspofungin, Griseofulvin
III. Antifungals inhibiting synthesis of nucleic acids
•Flucytosine

5. 1. Polyene antibiotics
Amphotericin B and Nystatin bind to the fungal
cell membrane component ergosterol, leading to
increased fungal cell membrane permeability and
the loss of intracellular constituents. Amphotericin has
a lesser affinity for the mammalian cell membrane
component cholesterol, but this interaction does
account for most adverse toxic effects.
Amphotericin B has activity against Candida spp.,
Cryptococcus neoformans, Blastomyces dermatitidis,
Histoplasma capsulatum, Sporothrix schenckii,
Coccidioides immitis, Paracoccidioides braziliensis,
Aspergillus spp., Penicillium marneffei, etc.

6. Amphotericin uses i.v. for treatment of Candida esopha-
gitis, rapidly progressive mucormycosis or invasive
aspergillosis. Intrathecal infusion of amphotericin B is
useful in patients with meningitis caused by Coccidioides.
Intravenous administration of amphotericin B is the
treatment of choice for mucormycosis and is used for the
initial treatment of cryptococcal meningitis, severe or
rapidly progressing histoplasmosis, blastomycosis,
and coccidioidomycosis.
Intraocular injection has
been used successfully
for fungal endophthalmitis.

7. The major acute reaction to i.v. amphotericin B is
fever and chills. Tachypnea and respiratory stridor
or modest hypotension also may occur. Patients with
preexisting cardiac or pulmonary disease may
tolerate the metabolic demands of the reaction
poorly and develop hypoxia or hypotension.
Although the reaction ends spontaneously in 30 to
45 minutes, pethidine may shorten it.
Pretreatment with oral paracetamol or use of i.v.
hydrocortisone hemisuccinate, at the start of the
infusion decreases reactions. Azotemia occurs in
80% of patients who receive amphotericin
in deep mycoses.

8. Several lipid formulations of amphotericin B – colloidal
dispersion and liposomal amphotericin B, have been
developed in an attempt to reduce the toxicity profile
of this drug and to increase its efficacy. Formulating
amphotericin with lipids alters drug distribution, with
lower levels of drug in the kidneys, reducing the
incidence of nephrotoxicity. While less toxic, the
lipid formulations are significantly more expensive
than conventional amphotericin B.
Polyene binds

9. Nystatin is a polyene antifungal drug with
a ring structure and a mechanism of action
similar to that of amphotericin B. Too toxic
for systemic use, nystatin is limited to the
topical treatment of superficial infections
caused by C. albicans. Infections commonly
treated by this drug include oral candidiasis
(thrush), mild esophageal candidiasis,
and vaginitis.

10. 2. Antifungal Azoles are synthetic drugs
with broad-spectrum fungistatic activity. Azoles can be
divided into two groups: the older imidazole agents
(clotrimazole, ketoconazole, miconazole) in which
the five-member azole nucleus contains two nitrogens
and the newer triazole compounds
(fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole),
in which the azole nucleus contains three nitrogens.

11. All azoles exert antifungal activity by inhibiting
cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for the
demethylation of lanosterol to ergosterol.
Reduced fungal membrane ergosterol concen-
trations result in damaged, leaky cell membranes.
The toxicity of these drugs depends on
their relative affinities for mammalian and fungal
cytochrome P450 enzymes.
The triazoles tend to have fewer side effects,
better absorption, better drug distribution in
body tissues, and fewer drug interactions.

13. Fluconazole does not require an acidic
environment, as does ketoconazole, for GI absorption.
About 80 to 90% of an orally administered
dose is absorbed, yielding high serum drug levels. The
t1/2 of the drug is 27 to 37 h, permitting once-daily
dosing in patients with normal renal function. Only 11%
of the circulating drug is bound to plasma proteins.
The drug penetrates widely into most body tissues.
Cerebrospinal fluid levels are 60 to 80% of serum levels,
permitting effective treatment for fungal meningitis.
About 80% of the drug is excreted unchanged in the
urine. Dosage reductions are required in the presence
of renal insufficiency.

14. Fluconazole is very effective in the treatment of infec-
tions with most Candida spp. Thrush in the end-stage
AIDS patient, often refractory to nystatin, clotrimazole,
and ketoconazole, can usually be suppressed with oral
fluconazole. AIDS patients with esophageal candidiasis
also usually respond to fluconazole. A single 150 mg
dose has been shown to be an effective treatment for
vaginal candidiasis. A 3-day course of oral fluconazole is
an effective treatment for Candida urinary tract infection.
Stable non-neutropenic patients with candidemia
can be adequately treated with fluconazole.

15. Fluconazole may be an alternative to amphotericin B
in the initial treatment of mild cryptococcal
meningitis and coccidioidal meningitis.
A significant decrease in mortality from deep-seated
mycoses was noted among bone marrow transplant
recipients treated prophylactically with fluconazole.
Fluconazole taken prophylactically by end-stage AIDS
patients can reduce the incidence of cryptococcal
meningitis, esophageal candidiasis, and
superficial fungal infections.

16. Fluconazole is well tolerated. Asymptomatic liver enzyme
elevation has been described, and several cases of
drug associated hepatic necrosis have been reported.
Alopecia has been reported as a common adverse event
in patients receiving prolonged high-dose therapy.
Coadministration of enzyme inhibitor fluconazole with
phenytoin results in increased serum phenytoin levels.

17. Itraconazole is lipophilic and water insoluble
and requires a low gastric pH for absorption.
Oral bioavailability is variable (20 to 60%). It is
highly protein bound (99%) and is metabolized
in the liver and excreted into the bile.
Itraconazole is most useful in the long-term suppressive
treatment of disseminated histoplasmosis in AIDS and
in the oral treatment of nonmeningeal blastomycosis.
It is the drug of choice for all forms of sporotrichosis
except meningitis. Itraconazole has replaced
ketoconazole as the drug of choice in the treatment
of paracoccidioidomycosis and chromomycosis.

18. Sporo-
trichosis
Sporothrix schenkii

19. Ketoconazole (Nizoral®) can be absorbed orally,
but it requires an acidic gastric environment.
It remains useful in the treatment of cutaneous and
mucous membrane dermatophyte and yeast infections,
but it has been replaced by the newer triazoles in the
treatment of most serious Candida infections and
disseminated mycoses. Ketoconazole is usually
effective in the treatment of thrush, but fluconazole
is superior to ketoconazole for refractory thrush.
Widespread dermatophyte
infections on skin surfaces
can be treated easily
with oral
ketoconazole.
Thrush

20. Nausea, vomiting, and anorexia occur commonly with
ketoconazole when high doses are prescribed.
Epigastric distress can be reduced by taking ketoconazole
with food. Pruritis and/or allergic dermatitis occurs in
10% of patients. Liver enzyme elevations during therapy
are usually reversible. Severe ketoconazole-
associated hepatitis is rare. At high doses,
ketoconazole causes a clinically significant
reduction in testosterone synthesis and blocks
the adrenal response to corticotrophin. Gynecomastia,
impotence, reduced sperm counts, and diminished libido
can occur in men, and prolonged drug use can result
in irregular menses in women. These hormonal effects
have led to the use of ketoconazole as a potential
adjunctive treatment for prostatic carcinoma.

21. Clotrimazole is a broad-spectrum fungistatic
imidazole drug used in the topical treatment of oral,
skin, and vaginal infections with C. albicans. It is
also employed in the treatment of infections with
cutaneous dermatophytes. Topical use results in
therapeutic drug concentrations in the epidermis
and mucous membranes; less than 10% of the
drug is systemically absorbed.

22. 3. Fluorinated pyrimidines
Flucytosine (5-flucytosine, 5-FC)
is an analogue of cytosine that was originally
synthesized for possible use as an antineoplastic
agent. 5-FC is converted to 5-fluorouracil inside the cell
by the fungal enzyme cytosine deaminase. The active
metabolite 5-fluorouracil interferes with fungal DNA
synthesis by inhibiting thymidylate synthetase.
Incorporation of these metabolites into fungal RNA
inhibits protein synthesis.
Flucytosine has a significant antifungal activity against
Candida spp. and the fungal organisms responsible
for chromomycosis.

23. 4. Allylamines – reversible noncompetitive
inhibitors of the fungal enzyme squalene
monooxygenase, which converts squalene to lanosterol.
With a decrease in lanosterol production, ergosterol
production is also diminished, affecting fungal cell
membrane synthesis and function. These agents
exhibit fungicidal activity against dermatophytes
and fungistatic activity against yeasts.
Naftifine is available for topical use only in the treat-
ment of cutaneous dermatophyte and Candida infections.
Terbinafine (Lamisil®) is available for
topical and systemic use (oral tablet) in
the treatment of dermatophyte skin and
nail infections.

24. ClearChoice™ uses two different and proven laser technologies
(Q-Switched Nd: YAG) and (Pulsed Nd: YAG) to treat onychomycosis
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25. 5. Echinocandins
Caspofungin is a semisynthetic lipopeptide. It
inhibits the synthesis of beta-D-glucan, a cell wall
component of filamentous fungi. Caspofungin is
approved for the treatment of invasive aspergillosis
in patients not responding to
amphotericin B, and itraconazole.
Adverse effects are mediated through histamine
release: facial flushing, rash, fever, and pruritus.
Dose reductions are required in the presence of
moderate hepatic insufficiency.

26. 6. Pyridones
Ciclopirox olamine is a pyridone derivative
for the treatment of cutaneous dermatophyte
infections, cutaneous C. albicans infections,
and tinea versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur.
It interferes with fungal growth by inhibiting
macromolecule synthesis.
7. Thiocarbamates
Tolnaftate is an antifungal agent effective
in the topical treatment of dermatophyte
infections and tinea.

27. 8. Nonpolyene antibiotics
Griseofulvin is an oral fungistatic agent used
in the long-term treatment of dermatophyte infections
caused by Epidermophyton, Microsporum, and
Trichophyton spp. Produced by Penicillium
griseofulvin, it inhibits fungal growth by binding to the
microtubules responsible for mitotic spindle formation.
The drug binds to keratin precursor cells
and newly synthesized keratin in the stratum corneum
of the skin, hair, and nails, stopping the progression of
dermatophyte infection. In the treatment of ringworm
of the beard, scalp, and other skin surfaces, 4 to 6
weeks of therapy is often required.