Broad spectrum antibiotics chloramphenicol, anaerobic,soil bacteria. Description includes Physicochemical Properties,Mechanism of action-50S ribosome ,Inhibits Bacterial protein synthesis,Resistance,Interactions,Indications of chloramphenicol-Pyogenic meningitis.
Anaerobic infections.
Intraocular infections.
Enteric fever
Drug of choice in some conditions.
Urinary tract infections
Topically In conjunctivitis & external ear Infections. Snehal chakorkar
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
Broad spectrum antibiotics chloramphenicol, anaerobic,soil bacteria. Description includes Physicochemical Properties,Mechanism of action-50S ribosome ,Inhibits Bacterial protein synthesis,Resistance,Interactions,Indications of chloramphenicol-Pyogenic meningitis.
Anaerobic infections.
Intraocular infections.
Enteric fever
Drug of choice in some conditions.
Urinary tract infections
Topically In conjunctivitis & external ear Infections. Snehal chakorkar
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
Sulfonamide (also called sulphonamide, sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group.
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
Broad Spectrum Antibiotic:Tetracycline,four cyclic rings,Physicochemical Properties,Classification-According to source and Based on Duration of action ,Mechanism of action-30S ribosomes ,Inhibit protein synthesis,Antimicrobial spectrum
Resistance
Adverse effects
Precautions,Uses by snehal chakorkar
THIS PRESENTATION ABOUT ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS DETAILING THE COMPLETE INFORMATION ABOUT THE DRUGS USED WITH ITS MECHANISM OF ACTION, STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY AND DOSES.
sulfonamides are the antimicrobial agents.It's act by folic acid synthesis inhibitors.It is PABA analogue competitive antagonist. first synthesised drug is prontosil.
In this slide contents history, mechanism of action, SAR, classification of drugs, some structure of important drugs, choice of drugs in different purpose, side effect, adverse effect.
Aminoglycosides(medicinal chemistry by p.ravisankar)Dr. Ravi Sankar
Aminoglycosides,Aminocyclitols,Source,Structures of streptomycin,Dihydrostreptomycin,A mention of other aminoglycoside antibiotics,Acid hydrolysis,Mechanism of action,SAR,Dihydrostreptomycin and its importance,therapeutic uses, toxicity.
Sulfonamide (also called sulphonamide, sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group.
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
Broad Spectrum Antibiotic:Tetracycline,four cyclic rings,Physicochemical Properties,Classification-According to source and Based on Duration of action ,Mechanism of action-30S ribosomes ,Inhibit protein synthesis,Antimicrobial spectrum
Resistance
Adverse effects
Precautions,Uses by snehal chakorkar
THIS PRESENTATION ABOUT ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS DETAILING THE COMPLETE INFORMATION ABOUT THE DRUGS USED WITH ITS MECHANISM OF ACTION, STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY AND DOSES.
sulfonamides are the antimicrobial agents.It's act by folic acid synthesis inhibitors.It is PABA analogue competitive antagonist. first synthesised drug is prontosil.
In this slide contents history, mechanism of action, SAR, classification of drugs, some structure of important drugs, choice of drugs in different purpose, side effect, adverse effect.
Aminoglycosides(medicinal chemistry by p.ravisankar)Dr. Ravi Sankar
Aminoglycosides,Aminocyclitols,Source,Structures of streptomycin,Dihydrostreptomycin,A mention of other aminoglycoside antibiotics,Acid hydrolysis,Mechanism of action,SAR,Dihydrostreptomycin and its importance,therapeutic uses, toxicity.
Brief information about Tuberculosis, drugs used for its treatment including recent advances and drug regimen for patients of different categories of TB suggested by WHO (DOTS therapy) including national and international programes for preventing TB.
antibiotics that inhibit synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. includes tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, macrolides and ketolides , chloramphenicol among others. this presentation highlights the clinical uses, adverse effects, common contraindications modes of action and susceptibility scores
Chloramphenicol Pharmacology-
Topics covered:-
1. Introduction
2. Structure
3. Mechanism Of Action
4. Bacterial Resistance to Chloramphenicol
5. Antimicrobial Spectrum
6. Pharmacokinetics
7. Adverse Effects
8. Drug Interactions
9. Therapeutic Uses
Chloramphenicol, a potent and versatile antibiotic, has played a significant role in the field of medicine since its discovery in the late 1940s. This broad-spectrum antibiotic is highly effective against a wide range of bacteria, making it a valuable tool in the fight against infectious diseases. However, its history is marked by controversies and challenges, which have influenced its usage and regulation.
Chloramphenicol was first isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae in 1947, marking a significant milestone in the development of antibiotics. Its ability to inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit distinguishes it as a bacteriostatic agent. This mode of action makes chloramphenicol effective against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some drug-resistant strains.
Despite its efficacy, chloramphenicol's history is marred by concerns about its safety. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely used as a broad-spectrum antibiotic for various infections. However, it was later associated with a potentially life-threatening condition known as "gray baby syndrome" in neonates, leading to restrictions on its use in children and pregnant women. Additionally, it has been linked to aplastic anemia, a rare but serious side effect, which led to further restrictions on its use in many countries.
The complex history of chloramphenicol extends to its current status in the medical field. While it is still used in some cases, it is typically reserved for situations where other antibiotics have failed, and safer alternatives are unavailable. The availability and regulation of chloramphenicol vary from country to country due to these concerns.
In recent years, research has focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms of chloramphenicol's action and the development of more targeted antibiotics with improved safety profiles. Its unique characteristics and historical significance continue to make it a subject of interest in the ongoing battle against bacterial infections.
In conclusion, chloramphenicol is a potent broad-spectrum antibiotic with a rich and complex history. Its discovery revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases, but safety concerns have led to restricted use. Ongoing research seeks to balance its efficacy with safety, highlighting the ongoing importance of this antibiotic in the field of medicine.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
2. INTRODUCTION
Antimicrobial drugs differ from all others in that they are designed to inhibit the growth
or to kill the infecting organism and to have minimal effect or nil effect on the recipient.
This type of therapy which is administered for treating systemic infections that
selectively suppress the pathogen without significantly affecting the host is called
chemotherapy.
The selective microbial toxicity – action of drug on
a component of microbe (or)
the metabolic process that was not in the host (or)
high affinity for certain microbial biomolecules .
Due to analogy between the malignant cell and the pathogenic microbes, treatment of
neoplastic diseases with drugs is also called 'chemotherapy'.
3. ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics are substances produced by microorganisms, which selectively suppress
the growth of microorganism or kill other microorganisms at very low
concentrations.
This excludes other natural substances which also inhibit microorganisms but are
produced by higher forms (e.g. antibodies) or even those produced by microbes but
are needed in high concentrations (ethanol, lactic acid, H2O2).
Initially the term 'chemotherapeutic agent‘ was restricted to synthetic compounds,
since many antibiotics and their analogues have been synthesized, this criterion
becomes irrelevant; both synthetic and microbiologically produced drugs need to be
put together.
It would be more appropriate to use the term Antimicrobial agent (AMA) to
designate synthetic as well as naturally obtained drugs that attenuate
microorganisms.
The first antibiotic discovered was penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1929
4. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
Chemical structure – Presence of functional group
Nitrobenzene derivative: Chloramphenicol.
Macrolide antibiotics: Erythromycin, Clarithromycin,
Azithromycin, etc
Mechanism of action – on the microbes
Inhibit protein synthesis: Tetracyclines, Chloramphenicol,
Erythromycin, Clindamycin, Linezolid.
Type of organism against which primarily active
Antibacterial - Erythromycin
Antiviral
Antifungal
Antiprotozoal
Antihelmintic
Spectrum of activity - Broad spectrum -chloramphenicol
Narrow spectrum-erythromycin
Type of action - Primarily Bacteriostatic ( chloramphenicol, macrolides).
Primarily bactericidal.
Source of antibiotics- fungi, bacteria, Actinomycetes ( chloramphenicol,
macrolides).
5. CHLORAMPHENICOL
Chloramphenicol was initially obtained from Streptomyces venezuelae in 1947.
It was soon synthesized chemically and the commercial product now is all
synthetic.
It is a yellowish white crystalline solid, aqueous solution is quite stable, stands
boiling, but needs protection from light. It has a nitrobenzene substitution,
which is probably responsible for the antibacterial activity and its intensely
bitter taste.
It is soluble in alcohol but poorly soluble in water. Chloramphenicol succinate ,
which is used for parentral administration is highly water soluble. It is hydrolyzed
invivo with liberation of free chloramphenicol
6. ANTIMICROBIAL SPECTRUM
BROAD
SPECTRUM
ANTIBIOTIC
Active against nearly the same range of organisms (gram-positive and negative
bacteria, rickettsiae, mycoplasma, chlamydia)
Gram-positive: Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Enterococcus sp., Bacillus
anthracis, Listeria monocytogenes.
Gram- negative: Hemophilus influenzae, M. catarrhalis, N. meningitides, E. coli,
P. mirabilis, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.
Chloramphenicol has excellent activity against anaerobes. The drug is either
bactericidal or (more commonly) bacteriostatic, depending on the organism.
Bactericidal against H. influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and S. pneumoniae.
The Enterobacteriaceae are variably sensitive to chloramphenicol. P.
aeruginosa is resistant to even very high concentrations of chloramphenicol.
Strains of V. cholerae have remained largely susceptible to chloramphenicol.
7. MECHANISM OF ACTION
Chloramphenicol is a protein synthesis inhibitor in
bacteria.
It inhibits protein by binding irreversibly to the bacterial
50s ribosome subunit.
It hinder the access of aminoacyl-tRNA to the acceptor site
for amino acid incorporation by acting as a peptide
analogue, it prevents formation of peptide bonds.
Thus inhibits protein synthesis at the peptidyl transferase
reaction
At high doses, it inhibits protein synthesis in mammalian
mitochondria via a similar mechanism, perhaps because
their ribosomes somewhat resemble bacterial ribosomes;
erythropoietic cells are particularly sensitive
8. RESISTANCE
Resistance is conferred by the presence of an
R factor that codes for an acetyl coenzyme A
transferase. This enzyme inactivates
chloramphenicol.
Another mechanism for resistance is
associated with an inability of the antibiotic
to penetrate the organism. This change in
permeability may be the basis of multidrug
resistance
Decreased permeability into the resistant
bacterial cells (chloramphenicol appears to
enter bacterial cell both by passive as well as
facilitated diffusion) and lowered affinity of
bacterial ribosome for chloramphenicol.
Partial cross resistance between
chloramphenicol and erythromycin/
clindamycin has been noted, because all
these antibiotics bind to 50S ribosome at
adjacent sites.
Some cross resistance with tetracyclines also
occurs, though the latter binds to 30S
ribosome
9. Chloramphenicol may be administered either
intravenously or orally. It is rapidly and completely
absorbed via the oral route because of its lipophilic
nature, and is widely distributed throughout the body.
It is 50-60% bound to plasma
proteins and very widely
distributed, volume of distribution
1 L/kg.
It freely penetrates serous cavities
and blood-brain barrier: CSF
concentration is nearly equal to
that of unbound drug in plasma. It
crosses placenta and is secreted in
bile and milk.
The drug inhibits the hepatic mixed-
function oxidases. Excretion of the
drug depends on its conversion in
the liver to a glucuronide, which is
then secreted by the renal tubule.
Only about 10 percent of the parent
compound is excreted by glomerular
filtration
Hepatic metabolism to the
inactive glucuronide is the major
route of elimination. This
metabolite and chloramphenicol
are excreted in the urine. Patients
with impaired liver function have
decreased metabolic clearance,
and dose should be decreased.
Since 50% of chloramphenicol is
bound to plasma proteins , the
dose should be reduced in
cirrhotic patients and in neonates.
PHARMACOKINETICS
10. THERAPEUTIC USES
Because of potential toxicity, bacterial resistance, and the availability of many other
effective alternatives which are less toxic, chloramphenicol is rarely used.
It may be considered for treatment of serious rickettsial infections such as typhus and
Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
It is an alternative to a b-lactam antibiotic for treatment of meningococcal meningitis
occurring in patients who have major hypersensitivity reactions to penicillin or
bacterial meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant strains of pneumococci.
Chloramphenicol is used topically in the treatment of eye infections because of its
broad spectrum and its penetration of ocular tissues and the aqueous humor. It is
ineffective for chlamydial infections.
Brucellosis: If tetracyclines are contraindicated, chloramphenicol is recommended.
Rarely used in the treatment of typhoid, when Third-generation cephalosporins and
quinolones which are drugs of choice for the treatment of typhoid fever were
contraindicated.
11. The clinical use of chloramphenicol is limited to life-threatening infections because of the
serious adverse effects associated with its administration.
Adverse
effects
Anemia
Hemolytic anemia –less glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Reversible anemia- side effect , dose related
Aplastic anemia - rare - idiosyncratic - usually fatal
Hypersensitivity
reaction
Rashes,
fever,
atrophic glossitis
angioedema
Gastrointestinal
irritative effects
Nausea
vomiting
diarrhoea
Gray baby
syndrome
Neonates have a low capacity to glucuronylate the antibiotic,
and they have underdeveloped renal function. Therefore,
neonates have a decreased ability to excrete the drug, which
accumulates to levels that interfere with the function of
mitochondrial ribosomes. This leads to poor feeding,depressed
breathing, cardiovascular collapse, cyanosis and death. Adults
who have received very high doses of the drug can also exhibit
this toxicity.
12. INTERACTIONS
Chloramphenicol is able to inhibit some of the hepatic mixed-function oxidases and,
thus, blocks the metabolism of such drugs as warfarin, phenytoin, tolbutamide, and
chlorpropamide, thereby elevating their concentrations and potentiating their effects.
Severe toxicity and death have occurred due to these drug interactions. Concurrent
administration of phenobarbital or rifampin, which potently induce CYPs, shortens
chloramphenicol’s t1/2 and may result in sub therapeutic drug concentrations
DOSAGE
The commonest route of administration of chloramphenicol is oral-as capsules; 250-500 mg
6 hourly (max. total dose 28 g), children 25-50 mg/kg/ day. It is also available for application
to eye/ear, but topical use at other sites is not recommended.
CHLOROMYCETIN, ENTEROMYCETIN, PARAXIN, 250 mg, 500 mg cap, 1% eye oint, 0.5% eye
drops, 5% ear drops, 1% applicaps.
13. MACROLIDES
The macrolides are a group of antibiotics with a macrocyclic lactone
structure to which one or more deoxy sugars are attached.
Macrolides includes ,
Erythromycin
Clarithromycin
Azithromycin -methyl-substituted nitrogen in the lactone
ring that improves acid stability and tissue penetration
and broadens the activity spectrum.
Roxithromycin .
Macrolides are narrow spectrum antibiotic. More commonly bacteriostatic
in nature ocassionaly bactericidal depends upon the microorganism.
Macrolides are also bacterial protein synthesis inhibitors.
Mechanism of action
• The macrolides bind irreversibly to a site on the 50S subunit of the
bacterial ribosome, thus inhibiting the translocation steps of protein
synthesis .
• They may also interfere at other steps, such as transpeptidation.
• Their binding site is either identical or in close proximity to that for
clindamycin and chloramphenicol.
14. ERYTHROMYCIN
It was isolated from Streptomyces erythreus in
1952.
It has been widely employed, mainly as
alternative to penicillin.
Water solubility of erythromycin is limited,
and the solution remains stable only when
kept in cold.
Antimicrobial spectrum
• It is narrow, includes mostly gram-positive and a few gram-negative bacteria, and
overlaps considerably with that of penicillin G.
• Erythromycin is highly active against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae, Listeria.
• Most penicillin-resistant Staphylococci and Streptococci were initially sensitive, but have
now become resistant to erythromycin also.
• In addition, Campylobacter, Legionella, Branhamella catarrhalis, Gardnerella vaginalis
and Mycoplasma, that are not affected by penicillin, are highly sensitive to
erythromycin.
• Few others, including H. influenzae, H. ducreyi, B. pertussis, Chlamydia trachoma tis, Str.
viridans, N. meningitidis and Rickettsiae are moderately sensitive.
15. Mechanism of
action
Erythromycin acts by
inhibiting bacterial
protein synthesis. lt
combines with 50S
ribosome subunits and
interferes with
'translocation' .
After peptide bond
formation between the
newly attached amino acid
and the nacent peptide chain
at the acceptor (A) site the
elongated peptide is
translocated back to the
peptidyl (P) site, making the
A site available for next
aminoacyl tRNA attachment.
This is prevented by
erythromycin and the
ribosome fails to move
along the mRNA to expose
the next codon. As an
indirect consequence,
peptide chain may be
prematurely terminated:
synthesis of larger proteins
is especifically suppressed.
16. Resistance to
erythromycin, mostly
by mechanisms which
render them less
permeable to
erythromycin or acquire
the capacity to pump it
out.
Alteration in the
ribosomal binding site
for erythromycin by
plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an
important mechanism
in gram-positive
bacteria.
All the above types of
resistance are plasmid
mediated, while change
in the 50S ribosome by
chromosomal mutation
has also been found.
Bacteria that develop
resistance to
erythromycin are
resistant to other
macrolides as well.
Cross resistance with
clindamycin and
chloramphenicol also
occurs, because the
ribosomal binding sites
for all these are
proximal to each
RESISTANCE
17. Pharmacokinetics
Erythromycin base is acid labile. To protect it from
gastric acid, it is given as enteric coated tablets, from
which absorption is incomplete and food delays
absorption by retarding gastric emptying.
Its acid stable esters are better absorbed. Erythromycin
is widely distributed in the body, enters cells and into
abscesses, crosses serous membranes and placenta,
but not bloodbrain barrier.
lt attains therapeutic concentration in the prostate. It is
70-80% plasma protein bound, partly metabolized and
excreted primarily in bile in the active form.
Renal excretion is minor; dose need not be altered in
renal failure. The plasma half life is 1.5 hr, but
erythromycin persists longer in tissues.
Dose: 250-500 mg 6
hourly (max. 4 g/day),
children 30-60
mg/kg/day.
Erytluomycin (base): ERYSAFE 250, mg tabs, EROMED
333 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml susp. Erytluomycin stearate:
ERYTHROCIN 250, 500 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl susp.,.
ETROCIN, ERYSTER 250 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl dry syr,
EMTHRO 250 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml susp.
Erythromycin estolate (lauryl sulfate): ALTHROCIN 250,
500 mg tab, 125 mg kid tab, 125 mg/ 5 ml and 250
mg/5 rnl dry syr, 100 mg/rnl ped. drops, E-MYCIN 100,
250 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl dry syr; ERYC-5 250 mg tab,
125 mg/5 ml dry syr.
Erythromycin ethylsuccinate: ERYNATE 100 mg/5 ml dry
syr, ERYTHROCIN 100 mg/ml drops, 125 mg/5 rnl syr.
A 30% ointment (GERY OINTMENT) is marketed for
topical treatment of boils, carbuncles and skin
infections, but efficacy is doubtful.
18. Therapeutic uses
As an alternative to
penicillin
Diptheria
Tetanus
Leptospirosis
Syphilis and
gonorrhoea
As a first choice drug
Mycoplasma
pneumoniae
Whooping cough
chancroid
As a second choice
drugs
Chlamydia
trachomatis infection
of urogenital tract
Penicillin-resistant
Staphylococcal
infections:
Legionnaires'
pneumonia:
Campylobacter
enteritis
19. Hypersensitivity
Cholestatic
jaundice
Ototoxicity Hepatotoxicity
INTERACTION
• Erythromycin inhibits hepatic oxidation of many drugs. The clinically significant
interactions are-rise in plasma levels of theophylline, carbamazepine, valproate,
ergotamine and warfarin.
• Several cases of Q-T prolongation, serious ventricular arrhythmias and death have been
reported due to inhibition of CYP3A4 by erythromycin/ clarithromycin resulting in high
blood levels of concurrently administered terfenadine/ astemizole/ cisapride
ADVERSE EFFECTS
20. NEWER MACROLIDES
In an attempt to overcome the limitations of erythromycin like narrow spectrum, gastric
intolerance, gastric acid lability, low oral bioavailability, poor tissue penetration and
short half-life, a number of semisynthetic macrolides have been produced, of which
roxithromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin have been marketed.
ROXITHROMYCIN
It is a semisynthetic long –acting acid-stable macrolide whose antimicrobial spectrum
resembles closely with that of erythromycin.
It is more potent against Branh. catarrhalis, Card. vaginal is and Legionella but less
potent against B. pertussis.
Good enteral absorption and tissue penetration, an average plasma t½ of 12 hr making
it suitable for twice daily dosing, as well as better gastric tolerability are its desirable
features.
Though its affinity for cytochrome P450 is lower, drug interactions with terfenadine,
cisapride and others are not ruled out.
Thus, it is an alternative to erythromycin for respiratory, ENT, skin and soft tissue and
genital tract infections with similar efficacy.
Dose: 150-300 mg BD 30 min before meals, children 2.5-5 mg/kg BD; ROXID, ROXIBID,
RULIDE 150, 300 mg tab, 50 mg kid tab, 50 mg /5 ml liquid; ROXEM 50 mg kid tab, 150 mg
tab
21. CLARITHROMYCIN
The antimicrobial spectrum of clarithromycin is
similar to erythromycin.
in addition,it includes Mycobact. avium
complex (MAC), other atypical mycobacteria,
Mycobact. leprae and some anaerobes but not
Bact. fragilis. It is more active against sensitive
strains of gram-positive cocci, Moraxella,
Legionella, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and
Helicobacter pylori.
However, bacteria that have developed
resistance to erythromycin are resistant to
clarithromycin also.
Clarithromycin is more acid-stable than erythromycin, and is rapidly absorbed; oral
bioavailability is -50% due to first pass metabolism; food delays but does not
decrease absorption.
It has slightly greater tissue distribution than erythromycin and is metabolized by
saturation kinetics-t1/2 is prolonged from 3--6 hours at lower doses to 6-9 hours at
higher doses.
An active metabolite is produced. About 1/3 of oral dose is excreted unchanged in
urine, but no dose modification is needed in liver disease or in mildto- moderate
kidney failure.
22. THERAPEUTIC USES
Clarithromycin is indicated in upper and lower respiratory tract infections, sinusitis, otitis
media, whooping cough, atypical pneumonia, skin and skin structure infections due to
Strep. pyogenes and some Staph. aureus.
Used as a component of triple drug regimen (seep. 637) it eradicates H. pylori in 1-2
weeks. It is a first line drug in combination regimens for MAC infection in AIDS patients .
second line drug for other atypical mycobacterial diseases as well as leprosy.
Dose: 250 mg BD for 7 days; severe cases 500 mg BD up to 14 days.
CLARIBID 250, 500 mg tabs, 250 mg/5 ml dry syr; CLARIMAC 250, 500 mg tabs; SYNCLAR
250 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml dry syr.
ADVERSE EFFECTS
Side effects of clarithromycin are similar to erythromycin, but gastric tolerance is better.
High doses can cause reversible hearing loss.
Few cases of pseudomembranous enterocolitis, hepatic dysfunction or rhabdomyolysis
are reported.
Its safety in pregnancy. The drug interaction potential is also similar to erythromycin.
23. AZITHROMYCIN
Has an expanded spectrum, improved
pharmacokinetics, better tolerability and drug
interaction profiles.
It is more active than other macrolides against H.
influenzae, but less active against gram-positive cocci.
High activity is exerted on respiratory pathogens-
Mycoplasma,Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella,
Moraxella and on others like Campylobacter, Ch.
trachomatis, H. ducreyi, Calymm, granulomatis, N.
gonorrhoeae.
However, it is not active against erythromycin resistant
bacteria. Good activity is noted against MAC.
24. THERAPEUTIC USES
Because of higher efficacy, better gastric tolerance and convenient once a day dosing,
azithromycin is now preferred over erythromycin as first choice drug for infections such as:
Legionnaires' pneumonia
Chlamydia trachomatis
Donovanosis caused by Calymmatobacterium Granulomatis
Chancroid and PPNG urethritis
PHARMACOKINETIC PROPERTIES
Acid-stability, rapid oral absorption, marked tissue distribution and intracellular
penetration. Concentration in most tissues exceeds that in plasma.
Particularly high concentrations are attained inside macrophages and fibroblasts;
volume of distribution is -30 L/kg.
Slow release from the intracellular sites contributes to its long terminal t1/2 of >50
hr. It is largely excreted unchanged in bile, renal excretion is - 10%.
25. ADVERSE EFFECTS
Side effects are mild gastric upset, abdominal pain (less than erythromycin), headache
and dizziness. Azithromycin has been found not to affect hepatic CYP3A4 enzyme.
Interaction with theophylline, carbamazepine, warfarin, terfenadine and cisapride is not
likely.
Dose: 500 mg once daily 1 hour before or 2 hours after food (food decreases bioavailability);
(children above 6 month-10 mg/kg/day for 3 days is sufficient for most infections.
AZITHRAL 250, 500 mg cap and 250 mg per 5 ml dry syr; AZIWOK 250 mg cap, 100 mg kid
tab, 100 mg/5 ml and 200 mg/5 rnl susp. AZIWIN 100, 250, 500 mg tab,200 mg/5 ml liq. Also
AZITHRAL 500 mg inj.
The other indications of azithromycin are pharyngitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis, otitis media,
pneumonias, acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis, streptococcal and some
staphylococcal skin and soft tissue infections. In combination with at least one other
drug it is effective in the prophylaxis and treatment of MAC in AIDS patients. Other
potential uses are in typhoid, toxoplasmosis and malaria.