The document discusses antimicrobials, particularly antibiotics like chloramphenicol and macrolides, which are designed to inhibit or kill infecting organisms while minimizing effects on the host. Antibiotics work by targeting specific components of microbes or their metabolic processes, with chloramphenicol being a broad-spectrum protein synthesis inhibitor derived from Streptomyces venezuelae. Macrolides, including erythromycin, are characterized by a macrocyclic lactone structure and primarily serve as bacteriostatic agents through the inhibition of protein synthesis.

1. ANTIBIOTICS
1.CHLORAMPHENICOL
2.MACROLIDES

2. INTRODUCTION
 Antimicrobial drugs differ from all others in that they are designed to inhibit the growth
or to kill the infecting organism and to have minimal effect or nil effect on the recipient.
 This type of therapy which is administered for treating systemic infections that
selectively suppress the pathogen without significantly affecting the host is called
chemotherapy.
 The selective microbial toxicity – action of drug on
 a component of microbe (or)
 the metabolic process that was not in the host (or)
 high affinity for certain microbial biomolecules .
 Due to analogy between the malignant cell and the pathogenic microbes, treatment of
neoplastic diseases with drugs is also called 'chemotherapy'.

3. ANTIBIOTICS
 Antibiotics are substances produced by microorganisms, which selectively suppress
the growth of microorganism or kill other microorganisms at very low
concentrations.
 This excludes other natural substances which also inhibit microorganisms but are
produced by higher forms (e.g. antibodies) or even those produced by microbes but
are needed in high concentrations (ethanol, lactic acid, H2O2).
 Initially the term 'chemotherapeutic agent‘ was restricted to synthetic compounds,
since many antibiotics and their analogues have been synthesized, this criterion
becomes irrelevant; both synthetic and microbiologically produced drugs need to be
put together.
 It would be more appropriate to use the term Antimicrobial agent (AMA) to
designate synthetic as well as naturally obtained drugs that attenuate
microorganisms.
 The first antibiotic discovered was penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1929

4. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
Chemical structure – Presence of functional group
 Nitrobenzene derivative: Chloramphenicol.
 Macrolide antibiotics: Erythromycin, Clarithromycin,
Azithromycin, etc
Mechanism of action – on the microbes
Inhibit protein synthesis: Tetracyclines, Chloramphenicol,
Erythromycin, Clindamycin, Linezolid.
Type of organism against which primarily active
 Antibacterial - Erythromycin
 Antiviral
 Antifungal
 Antiprotozoal
 Antihelmintic
Spectrum of activity - Broad spectrum -chloramphenicol
Narrow spectrum-erythromycin
Type of action - Primarily Bacteriostatic ( chloramphenicol, macrolides).
Primarily bactericidal.
Source of antibiotics- fungi, bacteria, Actinomycetes ( chloramphenicol,
macrolides).

5. CHLORAMPHENICOL
 Chloramphenicol was initially obtained from Streptomyces venezuelae in 1947.
It was soon synthesized chemically and the commercial product now is all
synthetic.
 It is a yellowish white crystalline solid, aqueous solution is quite stable, stands
boiling, but needs protection from light. It has a nitrobenzene substitution,
which is probably responsible for the antibacterial activity and its intensely
bitter taste.
 It is soluble in alcohol but poorly soluble in water. Chloramphenicol succinate ,
which is used for parentral administration is highly water soluble. It is hydrolyzed
invivo with liberation of free chloramphenicol

6. ANTIMICROBIAL SPECTRUM
BROAD
SPECTRUM
ANTIBIOTIC
Active against nearly the same range of organisms (gram-positive and negative
bacteria, rickettsiae, mycoplasma, chlamydia)
Gram-positive: Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Enterococcus sp., Bacillus
anthracis, Listeria monocytogenes.
Gram- negative: Hemophilus influenzae, M. catarrhalis, N. meningitides, E. coli,
P. mirabilis, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.
Chloramphenicol has excellent activity against anaerobes. The drug is either
bactericidal or (more commonly) bacteriostatic, depending on the organism.
Bactericidal against H. influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and S. pneumoniae.
The Enterobacteriaceae are variably sensitive to chloramphenicol. P.
aeruginosa is resistant to even very high concentrations of chloramphenicol.
Strains of V. cholerae have remained largely susceptible to chloramphenicol.

7. MECHANISM OF ACTION
Chloramphenicol is a protein synthesis inhibitor in
bacteria.
It inhibits protein by binding irreversibly to the bacterial
50s ribosome subunit.
It hinder the access of aminoacyl-tRNA to the acceptor site
for amino acid incorporation by acting as a peptide
analogue, it prevents formation of peptide bonds.
Thus inhibits protein synthesis at the peptidyl transferase
reaction
At high doses, it inhibits protein synthesis in mammalian
mitochondria via a similar mechanism, perhaps because
their ribosomes somewhat resemble bacterial ribosomes;
erythropoietic cells are particularly sensitive

8. RESISTANCE
Resistance is conferred by the presence of an
R factor that codes for an acetyl coenzyme A
transferase. This enzyme inactivates
chloramphenicol.
Another mechanism for resistance is
associated with an inability of the antibiotic
to penetrate the organism. This change in
permeability may be the basis of multidrug
resistance
Decreased permeability into the resistant
bacterial cells (chloramphenicol appears to
enter bacterial cell both by passive as well as
facilitated diffusion) and lowered affinity of
bacterial ribosome for chloramphenicol.
Partial cross resistance between
chloramphenicol and erythromycin/
clindamycin has been noted, because all
these antibiotics bind to 50S ribosome at
adjacent sites.
Some cross resistance with tetracyclines also
occurs, though the latter binds to 30S
ribosome

9. Chloramphenicol may be administered either
intravenously or orally. It is rapidly and completely
absorbed via the oral route because of its lipophilic
nature, and is widely distributed throughout the body.
It is 50-60% bound to plasma
proteins and very widely
distributed, volume of distribution
1 L/kg.
It freely penetrates serous cavities
and blood-brain barrier: CSF
concentration is nearly equal to
that of unbound drug in plasma. It
crosses placenta and is secreted in
bile and milk.
The drug inhibits the hepatic mixed-
function oxidases. Excretion of the
drug depends on its conversion in
the liver to a glucuronide, which is
then secreted by the renal tubule.
Only about 10 percent of the parent
compound is excreted by glomerular
filtration
Hepatic metabolism to the
inactive glucuronide is the major
route of elimination. This
metabolite and chloramphenicol
are excreted in the urine. Patients
with impaired liver function have
decreased metabolic clearance,
and dose should be decreased.
Since 50% of chloramphenicol is
bound to plasma proteins , the
dose should be reduced in
cirrhotic patients and in neonates.
PHARMACOKINETICS

10. THERAPEUTIC USES
 Because of potential toxicity, bacterial resistance, and the availability of many other
effective alternatives which are less toxic, chloramphenicol is rarely used.
 It may be considered for treatment of serious rickettsial infections such as typhus and
Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
 It is an alternative to a b-lactam antibiotic for treatment of meningococcal meningitis
occurring in patients who have major hypersensitivity reactions to penicillin or
bacterial meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant strains of pneumococci.
 Chloramphenicol is used topically in the treatment of eye infections because of its
broad spectrum and its penetration of ocular tissues and the aqueous humor. It is
ineffective for chlamydial infections.
 Brucellosis: If tetracyclines are contraindicated, chloramphenicol is recommended.
 Rarely used in the treatment of typhoid, when Third-generation cephalosporins and
quinolones which are drugs of choice for the treatment of typhoid fever were
contraindicated.

11. The clinical use of chloramphenicol is limited to life-threatening infections because of the
serious adverse effects associated with its administration.
Adverse
effects
Anemia
Hemolytic anemia –less glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Reversible anemia- side effect , dose related
Aplastic anemia - rare - idiosyncratic - usually fatal
Hypersensitivity
reaction
Rashes,
fever,
atrophic glossitis
angioedema
Gastrointestinal
irritative effects
Nausea
vomiting
diarrhoea
Gray baby
syndrome
Neonates have a low capacity to glucuronylate the antibiotic,
and they have underdeveloped renal function. Therefore,
neonates have a decreased ability to excrete the drug, which
accumulates to levels that interfere with the function of
mitochondrial ribosomes. This leads to poor feeding,depressed
breathing, cardiovascular collapse, cyanosis and death. Adults
who have received very high doses of the drug can also exhibit
this toxicity.

12. INTERACTIONS
 Chloramphenicol is able to inhibit some of the hepatic mixed-function oxidases and,
thus, blocks the metabolism of such drugs as warfarin, phenytoin, tolbutamide, and
chlorpropamide, thereby elevating their concentrations and potentiating their effects.
 Severe toxicity and death have occurred due to these drug interactions. Concurrent
administration of phenobarbital or rifampin, which potently induce CYPs, shortens
chloramphenicol’s t1/2 and may result in sub therapeutic drug concentrations
DOSAGE
The commonest route of administration of chloramphenicol is oral-as capsules; 250-500 mg
6 hourly (max. total dose 28 g), children 25-50 mg/kg/ day. It is also available for application
to eye/ear, but topical use at other sites is not recommended.
CHLOROMYCETIN, ENTEROMYCETIN, PARAXIN, 250 mg, 500 mg cap, 1% eye oint, 0.5% eye
drops, 5% ear drops, 1% applicaps.

13. MACROLIDES
 The macrolides are a group of antibiotics with a macrocyclic lactone
structure to which one or more deoxy sugars are attached.
 Macrolides includes ,
 Erythromycin
 Clarithromycin
 Azithromycin -methyl-substituted nitrogen in the lactone
ring that improves acid stability and tissue penetration
and broadens the activity spectrum.
 Roxithromycin .
 Macrolides are narrow spectrum antibiotic. More commonly bacteriostatic
in nature ocassionaly bactericidal depends upon the microorganism.
 Macrolides are also bacterial protein synthesis inhibitors.
 Mechanism of action
• The macrolides bind irreversibly to a site on the 50S subunit of the
bacterial ribosome, thus inhibiting the translocation steps of protein
synthesis .
• They may also interfere at other steps, such as transpeptidation.
• Their binding site is either identical or in close proximity to that for
clindamycin and chloramphenicol.

14. ERYTHROMYCIN
 It was isolated from Streptomyces erythreus in
1952.
 It has been widely employed, mainly as
alternative to penicillin.
 Water solubility of erythromycin is limited,
and the solution remains stable only when
kept in cold.
Antimicrobial spectrum
• It is narrow, includes mostly gram-positive and a few gram-negative bacteria, and
overlaps considerably with that of penicillin G.
• Erythromycin is highly active against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae, Listeria.
• Most penicillin-resistant Staphylococci and Streptococci were initially sensitive, but have
now become resistant to erythromycin also.
• In addition, Campylobacter, Legionella, Branhamella catarrhalis, Gardnerella vaginalis
and Mycoplasma, that are not affected by penicillin, are highly sensitive to
erythromycin.
• Few others, including H. influenzae, H. ducreyi, B. pertussis, Chlamydia trachoma tis, Str.
viridans, N. meningitidis and Rickettsiae are moderately sensitive.

15. Mechanism of
action
Erythromycin acts by
inhibiting bacterial
protein synthesis. lt
combines with 50S
ribosome subunits and
interferes with
'translocation' .
After peptide bond
formation between the
newly attached amino acid
and the nacent peptide chain
at the acceptor (A) site the
elongated peptide is
translocated back to the
peptidyl (P) site, making the
A site available for next
aminoacyl tRNA attachment.
This is prevented by
erythromycin and the
ribosome fails to move
along the mRNA to expose
the next codon. As an
indirect consequence,
peptide chain may be
prematurely terminated:
synthesis of larger proteins
is especifically suppressed.

16. Resistance to
erythromycin, mostly
by mechanisms which
render them less
permeable to
erythromycin or acquire
the capacity to pump it
out.
Alteration in the
ribosomal binding site
for erythromycin by
plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an
important mechanism
in gram-positive
bacteria.
All the above types of
resistance are plasmid
mediated, while change
in the 50S ribosome by
chromosomal mutation
has also been found.
Bacteria that develop
resistance to
erythromycin are
resistant to other
macrolides as well.
Cross resistance with
clindamycin and
chloramphenicol also
occurs, because the
ribosomal binding sites
for all these are
proximal to each
RESISTANCE

17. Pharmacokinetics
Erythromycin base is acid labile. To protect it from
gastric acid, it is given as enteric coated tablets, from
which absorption is incomplete and food delays
absorption by retarding gastric emptying.
Its acid stable esters are better absorbed. Erythromycin
is widely distributed in the body, enters cells and into
abscesses, crosses serous membranes and placenta,
but not bloodbrain barrier.
lt attains therapeutic concentration in the prostate. It is
70-80% plasma protein bound, partly metabolized and
excreted primarily in bile in the active form.
Renal excretion is minor; dose need not be altered in
renal failure. The plasma half life is 1.5 hr, but
erythromycin persists longer in tissues.
Dose: 250-500 mg 6
hourly (max. 4 g/day),
children 30-60
mg/kg/day.
Erytluomycin (base): ERYSAFE 250, mg tabs, EROMED
333 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml susp. Erytluomycin stearate:
ERYTHROCIN 250, 500 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl susp.,.
ETROCIN, ERYSTER 250 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl dry syr,
EMTHRO 250 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml susp.
Erythromycin estolate (lauryl sulfate): ALTHROCIN 250,
500 mg tab, 125 mg kid tab, 125 mg/ 5 ml and 250
mg/5 rnl dry syr, 100 mg/rnl ped. drops, E-MYCIN 100,
250 mg tab, 100 mg/5 rnl dry syr; ERYC-5 250 mg tab,
125 mg/5 ml dry syr.
Erythromycin ethylsuccinate: ERYNATE 100 mg/5 ml dry
syr, ERYTHROCIN 100 mg/ml drops, 125 mg/5 rnl syr.
A 30% ointment (GERY OINTMENT) is marketed for
topical treatment of boils, carbuncles and skin
infections, but efficacy is doubtful.

18. Therapeutic uses
As an alternative to
penicillin
Diptheria
Tetanus
Leptospirosis
Syphilis and
gonorrhoea
As a first choice drug
Mycoplasma
pneumoniae
Whooping cough
chancroid
As a second choice
drugs
Chlamydia
trachomatis infection
of urogenital tract
Penicillin-resistant
Staphylococcal
infections:
Legionnaires'
pneumonia:
Campylobacter
enteritis

19. Hypersensitivity
Cholestatic
jaundice
Ototoxicity Hepatotoxicity
INTERACTION
• Erythromycin inhibits hepatic oxidation of many drugs. The clinically significant
interactions are-rise in plasma levels of theophylline, carbamazepine, valproate,
ergotamine and warfarin.
• Several cases of Q-T prolongation, serious ventricular arrhythmias and death have been
reported due to inhibition of CYP3A4 by erythromycin/ clarithromycin resulting in high
blood levels of concurrently administered terfenadine/ astemizole/ cisapride
ADVERSE EFFECTS

20. NEWER MACROLIDES
In an attempt to overcome the limitations of erythromycin like narrow spectrum, gastric
intolerance, gastric acid lability, low oral bioavailability, poor tissue penetration and
short half-life, a number of semisynthetic macrolides have been produced, of which
roxithromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin have been marketed.
ROXITHROMYCIN
 It is a semisynthetic long –acting acid-stable macrolide whose antimicrobial spectrum
resembles closely with that of erythromycin.
 It is more potent against Branh. catarrhalis, Card. vaginal is and Legionella but less
potent against B. pertussis.
 Good enteral absorption and tissue penetration, an average plasma t½ of 12 hr making
it suitable for twice daily dosing, as well as better gastric tolerability are its desirable
features.
 Though its affinity for cytochrome P450 is lower, drug interactions with terfenadine,
cisapride and others are not ruled out.
 Thus, it is an alternative to erythromycin for respiratory, ENT, skin and soft tissue and
genital tract infections with similar efficacy.
Dose: 150-300 mg BD 30 min before meals, children 2.5-5 mg/kg BD; ROXID, ROXIBID,
RULIDE 150, 300 mg tab, 50 mg kid tab, 50 mg /5 ml liquid; ROXEM 50 mg kid tab, 150 mg
tab

21. CLARITHROMYCIN
 The antimicrobial spectrum of clarithromycin is
similar to erythromycin.
 in addition,it includes Mycobact. avium
complex (MAC), other atypical mycobacteria,
Mycobact. leprae and some anaerobes but not
Bact. fragilis. It is more active against sensitive
strains of gram-positive cocci, Moraxella,
Legionella, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and
Helicobacter pylori.
 However, bacteria that have developed
resistance to erythromycin are resistant to
clarithromycin also.
 Clarithromycin is more acid-stable than erythromycin, and is rapidly absorbed; oral
bioavailability is -50% due to first pass metabolism; food delays but does not
decrease absorption.
 It has slightly greater tissue distribution than erythromycin and is metabolized by
saturation kinetics-t1/2 is prolonged from 3--6 hours at lower doses to 6-9 hours at
higher doses.
 An active metabolite is produced. About 1/3 of oral dose is excreted unchanged in
urine, but no dose modification is needed in liver disease or in mildto- moderate
kidney failure.

22. THERAPEUTIC USES
 Clarithromycin is indicated in upper and lower respiratory tract infections, sinusitis, otitis
media, whooping cough, atypical pneumonia, skin and skin structure infections due to
Strep. pyogenes and some Staph. aureus.
 Used as a component of triple drug regimen (seep. 637) it eradicates H. pylori in 1-2
weeks. It is a first line drug in combination regimens for MAC infection in AIDS patients .
 second line drug for other atypical mycobacterial diseases as well as leprosy.
Dose: 250 mg BD for 7 days; severe cases 500 mg BD up to 14 days.
CLARIBID 250, 500 mg tabs, 250 mg/5 ml dry syr; CLARIMAC 250, 500 mg tabs; SYNCLAR
250 mg tab, 125 mg/5 ml dry syr.
ADVERSE EFFECTS
 Side effects of clarithromycin are similar to erythromycin, but gastric tolerance is better.
 High doses can cause reversible hearing loss.
 Few cases of pseudomembranous enterocolitis, hepatic dysfunction or rhabdomyolysis
are reported.
 Its safety in pregnancy. The drug interaction potential is also similar to erythromycin.

23. AZITHROMYCIN
 Has an expanded spectrum, improved
pharmacokinetics, better tolerability and drug
interaction profiles.
 It is more active than other macrolides against H.
influenzae, but less active against gram-positive cocci.
High activity is exerted on respiratory pathogens-
Mycoplasma,Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella,
Moraxella and on others like Campylobacter, Ch.
trachomatis, H. ducreyi, Calymm, granulomatis, N.
gonorrhoeae.
 However, it is not active against erythromycin resistant
bacteria. Good activity is noted against MAC.

24. THERAPEUTIC USES
Because of higher efficacy, better gastric tolerance and convenient once a day dosing,
azithromycin is now preferred over erythromycin as first choice drug for infections such as:
 Legionnaires' pneumonia
 Chlamydia trachomatis
 Donovanosis caused by Calymmatobacterium Granulomatis
 Chancroid and PPNG urethritis
PHARMACOKINETIC PROPERTIES
 Acid-stability, rapid oral absorption, marked tissue distribution and intracellular
penetration. Concentration in most tissues exceeds that in plasma.
 Particularly high concentrations are attained inside macrophages and fibroblasts;
volume of distribution is -30 L/kg.
 Slow release from the intracellular sites contributes to its long terminal t1/2 of >50
hr. It is largely excreted unchanged in bile, renal excretion is - 10%.

25. ADVERSE EFFECTS
Side effects are mild gastric upset, abdominal pain (less than erythromycin), headache
and dizziness. Azithromycin has been found not to affect hepatic CYP3A4 enzyme.
Interaction with theophylline, carbamazepine, warfarin, terfenadine and cisapride is not
likely.
Dose: 500 mg once daily 1 hour before or 2 hours after food (food decreases bioavailability);
(children above 6 month-10 mg/kg/day for 3 days is sufficient for most infections.
AZITHRAL 250, 500 mg cap and 250 mg per 5 ml dry syr; AZIWOK 250 mg cap, 100 mg kid
tab, 100 mg/5 ml and 200 mg/5 rnl susp. AZIWIN 100, 250, 500 mg tab,200 mg/5 ml liq. Also
AZITHRAL 500 mg inj.
The other indications of azithromycin are pharyngitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis, otitis media,
pneumonias, acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis, streptococcal and some
staphylococcal skin and soft tissue infections. In combination with at least one other
drug it is effective in the prophylaxis and treatment of MAC in AIDS patients. Other
potential uses are in typhoid, toxoplasmosis and malaria.