An Introduction to Project management(project management tutorials)

BIT 2215 PROJECT MANAGEMENT NOTES
System Design and Analysis review:
-SDLC:
1. System Investigation:
 Problem Definition
 Feasibility study
 Fact finding
2. System Analysis
 Requirements engineering
 Elicitation
 Analysis
 Specification
 Systems analysis tools
 Data modeling
 Process modeling
3. System Design and Coding
 Physical and Logical design
 Database development
 Coding
4. System testing
 Levels of testing, strategies and approaches
5. System Implementation
 File conversion
 Staff training
 Changeover strategies
6. Documentation
 Define documentation
 Purpose of documentation
 Types of documentation
System Analysis Models
 These are made up of class diagrams, sequences or collaboration diagrams and statechart
diagrams. Between them they constitute a logical, implementation-free view of the

computer system that includes a detailed definition of every aspect of functionality.
 This model defines what the system does-not how it does it;
 It defines logical requirements in more details than the use case model, rather than a
physical solution to the requirements;
 It leaves out all technology detail, including system topology.
What is a project?
• Sequence or series of tasks/activities that are: have a specific objective to be completed
within certain specifications or organized approach, have defined start and end dates,
have funding limits, consume resources (i.e., money, people, equipment)
Project Resources:
Time; Money; People; Materials; Energy; Space; etc.
The three Project Management Constraints
Time
Scope
Cost.
The Project Management Triple constraints are the keys to quality and success! These three are
interdependent and create quite a balancing act for Project Managers.
The time constraint:- is the amount of time available to complete a project. All projects have
deadlines or end dates. This may be the most difficult constraint to manage.
The cost constraint:- is the budgeted amount available for the project. Remember that cost also
translates to resources – people, equipment, and materials.
The scope constraint is what must be done to produce the project's end result – the system you
need – meeting your requirements!
These three constraints are often competing constraints:
• increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost,
• a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope,
• a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope, or managing the project
over a longer period of time to take advantage of various funding opportunities without a
loss of continuity!
The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the

project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.
Types of projects:
They can be Personal, Industrial or business: Examples
• Planning a wedding
• Designing and implementing a computer system
• Hosting a holiday party
• Designing and producing a brochure
• Executing an environmental clean-up of a contaminated site
• Holding a high school reunion
• Performing a series of surgeries on an accident victim
Who uses Project Management?
• Nearly Everyone to some degree
People plan their Days, their Weeks, their Vacations and their Budgets and keep a simple
project management form known as ‘’To Do’’ list
• Any Process or Means used to track tasks or efforts towards accomplishing a goal
could be considered Project Management
Terminologies
Authority: Power assigned to persons to make decisions others have to follow
Duties: Tasks a person has to take care for to fulfill effectively their role in the organization of a
project
Responsibility:
Authority granted to someone to enable them carry out the necessary task
Management : is the process of Planning, Organizing, Controlling and Measuring
Activities: in a project should be organised to produce tangible outputs for management to
judge progress.
Milestones: are the end-point of a process activity.
Deliverables: are project results delivered to customers.
What is Project Management?

Project Management - a system of procedures, practices, technologies, and know-how that
provides the planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling necessary to
successfully manage a project by meeting project requirements within defined scope,
quality, time and constraints.
Project Management is not about fear and intimidations to bring immediate results. That is not
the Leadership style that works in project delivery.
4P’s in Project Management Spectrum
 People
 Product
 Process
 Project
People…
 …the most important factor in success of software project.
 “Companies That sensibly manage their investment in people will prosper in the long
run” .
 Cultivation of motivated and highly skilled software people has always been important
for software organizations.
 The “people-factor” is so important that has developed People Management Capability
Maturity Model (PM-CMM).
PM-CMM
 In simple words - to enhance the people’s capabilities through personnel
development
 Organizations that achieve high levels of maturity in PM-CMM have a higher likelihood
of implementing effective software engineering practices
 Key Practice Areas of PM-CMM
 Recruiting
 Selection
 Performance Management
 Training
 Compensation
 Career development
 Organization and work design
 Team/culture development
People Involved in Software Process
 The Stakeholders
 They can be categorized into one of the following
 Senior Managers

 they define business issues that often have significant influence on
business
 Project (technical) managers
 they must plan, motivate, organize and control the practitioners
who do software work
 Practitioners
 They deliver the technical skills necessary to engineer a product or
application
 Customers
 They specify the requirements for the software to be engineered
 End Users
 They interact with the software after it is released for production
use
 Process Owner - These are usually the unit or line managers that govern
different processes or functions in an organization.
 Process Sponsor - Person(s) or group that is the financier. Sometime the
Excecutive
 Vendor, Supplier, Consultant, Expert -Render services to the software
development process either by supplying equipment, giving expert advise,
guiding, training, etc
 Developers, System analyst, Technical experts - This is the project team.
They own most project tasks
The Product
 The product and the problem it is intended to solve must be examined at very beginning
of the software project.
 The scope of product must be established and bounded.
 Bounded scope means
 establishing quantitative data like no. of simultaneous users, max.
allowable response time. etc.
 Constraints and limitations
Software scope
 Scope is defined by
 Context (1st
step in scope determination)
 Functional location of the software product into a large system, product or
business context.
 Constraints involved
 Information Objectives (2nd step)
 What data objects are required as i/p or o/p
 Function and Performance (3rd step)
 What function does the software system perform on i/p to produce o/p

 What level of performance is required?
The Process
Common Process Framework Activities:
 These characterize a software process and are applicable to all software projects
 Communication
 Planning
 Modeling
 Construction
 Deployment
 These are applied to software engineering work tasks (e.g., different product functions)
The Process Models
 Different process models:
 Linear sequential, Prototyping, RAD, Spiral, Formal …
 Project manager must decide about which model to use depending on
 Customers who have requested the product
 People who would work on project
 Product characteristics
 Project environment
 Project planning begins once model is selected
Process decomposition
 The way a process is decomposed depends on project complexity
 Decomposition involves outlining of work tasks involved in each process framework
activity
The Project
Project failure is: Not delivering the project on time, within budget, and according to scope. Also
note that failure is an event, never a person!
Why IT Projects fail
 Weak business case – is this just a whim or is there a real need for the project? If so,
prove it!
 Lack of senior management commitment - Senior management commitment is vital –
these are the decision-makers and hold the purse strings. You have to have their buy-in or
else you set yourself up for failure. Every project has to have a CHAMPION = senior
management sponsor!
 Inadequate project planning (budget, schedule, scope, etc.): Inadequate project planning
will always present problems. You have to know what you are doing, why you are doing
it, who’s doing what, when it needs to be done and how much it will cost.

 Absence of user involvement: This is a showstopper. The users will be the staff who are
going to live and breathe the system once it’s implemented. You need their expertise and
their buy-in to make the project a success. Leave them out and be ready to meet
resistance to any change you try to implement.
 New or unfamiliar technology: This is always a risk. It raises risks and fears. You
always need to manage risks. So, do your homework in your planning phase to make
sure the chosen solution will work for you! You may want to perform a proof of concept
and test it before deciding to move forward into full blown design and development.
Recognize that even if it does work, there are other implications that need to be closely
scrutinized and planned for accordingly – such as training and support. Change is always
scary! It’s just human nature!
 Lack of defined, clear or concise requirements: requirements must be defined (no one can
read your mind), clear (what do you really mean), and concise (I want this to do this).
Role/Responsibilities of a project manager
1. PLAN
 Identify all stakeholders up front!
 Develop the project plan before starting the project
 Establish communications protocols- this should be written. Who reports to who,
who carries the message to whom!
 Define your requirements in detail
 Establish a speedy conflict resolution process- WRITTEN and part of the SOW or
Contract
 Make contingency Plans – if things didn’t go wrong you wouldn’t need a PM! A
risk management plan is NOT a contingency plan. Risk is something you
anticipate! Contingency is something you must be ready to react to!
 Plan a reasonable roll-out schedule. You are not just putting in a new system –
you are also changing the way you do business and this has a huge impact. Allow
time to deal with it.
2. LEAD
 Ensure strong, committed management support
 Connect the business goals to the IT project
 The Project Manager is responsible for ensuring the work gets done – not DOING
all the work!

 Establish clearly defined directions
 Be proactive
 Give IT and program a seat at the table- this is about OWNERSHIP!
 Set clear performance expectations - for the developer, for the project team, for
your stakeholders!
 Ask for technical assistance
 Do not start roll-out until pilot is complete!
3. COMMUNICATE
DID YOU KNOW THAT PM’s SPEND 90% of their TIME COMMUNICATING??!!
 Communicate objectives frequently – keep everyone on the same page!
 Recognize different perspectives-Recognize that with the various stakeholders
(program staff, IT, workers, management) come different perspectives that are all
valuable to the project! Listen!! These reflect their concerns and interests.
Repeat them back to make sure you understand!
 Check assumptions frequently -Remember those system goals and objectives we
discussed during the alternatives analysis? These need to be reiterated to make
sure assumptions stay consistent and are truly reflective of the business case.
 Manage expectations of all stakeholders – need to be realistic and match the
actual work involved. Sometimes states think this will solve all your problems –
save time, money, staff, etc. These expectations, if overblown, can cause
problems. Be very honest about what the new system will or will NOT do. Don’t
give false expectations. Remember change brings a fear factor with it. Assuage
fears. Encourage success.
 Share success and broadcast achievements: Broadcast achievements throughout
the project – newsletters, e-mails, announcements at meetings – too often we only
hear about the problems – theres need to hear the good as well! Use on-line
forums or even a project blog.
 Invite feedback from all stakeholders throughout the project! Good or bad! Be
ready to manage it!
KEY POINT!!! A Project Manager has to be willing and able to tell the truth to
power! Remember PM’s should be empowered and this includes being the
messenger to the senior managers – the project champions!

4. MANAGE
 Ensure the system design reflects sound planning: i. e. Ensure that the system design
reflects the system that you need and you can afford using your budget at this point in
time!
 Hold the reins on irrational exuberance! Don’t let your project team or stakeholders
be blinded by the lights and just jump on the latest and great technology going! We’ve
all seen those “bright idea” moments whether it is in requirements definition or in
design sessions. Excitement is wonderful but we’ve all been in those sessions where
we get carried away. This can lead to adding expensive tweaks and functions that end
up causing scope creep and affecting the budget and the schedule. MANAGING
THE TRIPLE CONSTRAINTS! Don’t let your project get out of hand! If you are
going to increase scope, do it knowingly! Keep an eye on that requirements
traceability matrix!! Some of these “bright ideas” may need to become options or go
on your wish/enhancement list!
 Train all staff in a timely fashion- Remember the “Getting to Go Live” session!!
 Make extensive testing a priority! Don’t go cheap on testing.
 Make the most of pilot testing! Make the most of pilot testing!
5. TEAMWORK-MOTIVATION
NB: A good project team can be the key to a successful project!
A good project team doesn’t mean leaving the uncooperative people out of the room –
make the extra effort to co-opt them!
Draw on all areas of expertise! You need the subject matter experts on your team!
Involve your stakeholders – encourage synergy and collaboration!
Being a team member also gives stakeholders a sense of ownership and commitment.
Good teamwork makes the Project Manager look good and the project successful!
A quote from PMBOK -- “An under-qualified project manager can destroy a contract as
effectively as an under-qualified engineer”

PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT
• Concerned with activities involved in ensuring that software is delivered on time and on
schedule and in accordance with the requirements of the organizations developing and
procuring the software.
• Project management is needed because software development is always subject to budget
and schedule constraints that are set by the organization developing the software.
Types of Companies where Software Projects are required:
• Software Factories
• IT Departments
• Entrepreneurial Companies
Types of Software Projects
 Software Development.
 Software Maintenance.
 Subcontract Software Project.
Project Management Process
• Initiating Processes
• Planning Processes
• Executing Processes
• Monitoring & Controlling Processes
• Closing Processes
1. Conception/Initiation Phase
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION AND APPRAISAL: FEASIBILITY STUDY.
• This is the phase during which project idea germinated. The idea may first come to the
mind when one is seriously trying to overcome certain problems.
• This phase begins when the user perceives a problem, need or opportunity. This can
arise anywhere in an organisation, some areas are corporate planning, marketing,
engineering, manufacturing sections etc.

As part of this phase, it is also necessary that the idea has merit and should be pursued. This
requires
investigation that usually follows the following sequence:
• fact finding where data is collected from interview, background research or review of
existing documentation.
• definition of the problems statement where objectives are defined.
• determination of possible solutions without detailed investigation of the alternative but
the elements of the problem. Preliminary order of magnitude estimates are often made at
this stage.
• determination of screening criteria to evaluate the most promising of alternatives.
• selection of solutions worth undertaking a detailed analysis.
A well-conceived project will go a long way for successful implementation and operation of a
project. It is quite possible that ideas may undergo some changes as the project progresses. This
is understandable since at the conception stage all pertinent data are not available and also the
real life scenario may undergo considerable change compared to what may have been assumed
initially.
a) Project feasibility
This stage is undertaken to determine if the solution is economically viable and worth pursuing.
This stage requires a lot of information and is often undertaken in the following sequence:
• Pre-feasibility study that is an initial screening process using information available inside
the users company.
• Solicitation of information from contractors to assess project's viability (Request for
Proposal).
• Analysis of the viability of the progject.
The provision of information from the contract is not without cost to both parties.
Contractor's undertake the risk of incurring this cost and will assess:
• is the risk worth getting a head start on competitors,
• Whether the contractor has sufficient resources to continue with the project.
• If undertaking the project will be consistent for the contractors reputation.
• The probability and ability of the client to implement the project.
Sometimes contractors will submit a proposal with little chance of undertaking the work to
be maintained on the clients bidders list for other work.
Proposals may be prepared by the contractor without the users soliciting proposals. This
occurs when a contractor feels that it has a solution that may be of benefit to the user.
Feasibility Study
• Analyze the general requirements, costs and the functionality and services provided by
the system to be developed.
• Aims at determining whether a system should be developed or not
• Note: Feasibility study can be viewed as a project itself.

b) Proposal Preparation
• Proposals prepared by the contractor are separate mini projects. As time and money
are expended, top management authorisation is usually required for this process.
• A proposal manager is appointed and reviews the users requirements. From these
requirements it is often advisable to prepare a detailed summary of the project.
• The proposal team may be involved in further defining the user's requirements to
enable a proposal to be prepared. This further development often occurs with input
from the user.
• Once the requirements are fully determined, a statement of work or methodology is
prepared. This outlines the activities in broad terms that are required to satisfy the
user's requirements.
• The contractor will then prepare a structure for presentation and collation of
information. The proposal team must think through the entire project and a Work
Breakdown Structure is devised to facilitate this process.
The contractor will then review information in the proposal and make final adjustments before
submitting the document to the user for consideration.
c) Project evaluation and selection
The selection of a model is subject to a number of criteria:
 Realism and consistency of comparison across multiple projects. The realities that a selection
model should consider are:
 facility constraints.
 capital or borrowing capacity of the company.
 personnel available to supervise the project and many others.
 To have an effective selection model a company needs to compare "apples with apples". This
requirement often causes companies to compare on a cost/benefit basis usually expressed in
dollar terms.
 Capability of being able to simulate both internal and external conditions and optimise the
solution.
 Flexibility to cater for a range of conditions that may affect the decision.
 Ease of use.
 Cost effective, particularly being consistent with the risks of the project.
Project selection is the first step in initiating a project. It is a systematic process of comparison
of alternatives to achieve organisational objectives.
In many methods, figures will be used to select the projects worth pursuing. If numerical
analysis is not possible, the principles will often still apply. It is worth going behind the formulas
and understanding the logic and philosophy to fully apply these techniques.
These methods generally use three parameters:
 cost
 benefit

 risk.
Understanding these processes although the project manager is often appointed after selection
has been made is important to allow project personnel to understand the client or parent
organisation's objectives.
2. Planning and Organizing Phase
This phase overlaps so much with the initialization/conception and also with implementation
phases that no formal recognition is given to this by most organizations.
Some organisations, however, prepare documents such as Project Execution Plan to mark this
phase.
Planning is making a decision in advance. If this is not done, one will only be resolving crisis
after crisis. It is, therefore, essential that this phase is completely gone through before the next
phase, namely, the implementation phase starts. Many of the decisions and actions taken during
this phase relate to project basics, and if the project jumps into the implementation phase without
freezing the basics, the project is bound fail altogether.
A Plan: The listing or visual display that results when all project activities have been subjected
to
 Estimating.
 Logical sequencing.
 Time analysis.
Project planning involves identifying the products to be delivered, developing estimates for the
work to be performed, establishing the necessary commitments, and defining a schedule to
perform the work.
Planning begins with a statement of the work to be performed and other constraints and goals
that define and bound the project (those established by the requirements elicitation stage).
The planning process takes the estimates produced by the estimation process and uses these to
produce a schedule, identify and assess risks, and negotiate commitments. Iterating through
these steps may be necessary to reflect real-world changes in the project environment.
This plan provides the basis for performing and managing the project’s activities and addresses
the commitments to the project’s customer according to the resources, constraints, and
capabilities of the project team.
Project Planning involves
1. Management, Technical and Quality Plan contents – the main components of the overall
project plan;
2. Planning techniques – the use of various representations of relationships between project
activities and the time they will require in order to be delivered;

3. Network Analysis – the way in which these relationships can be understood and adequate
control be exercised.
During this phase, deal with the following,
1. Project infrastructure and enabling services
2. System design and basic engineering package
3. Organisation and manpower
4. Schedules and budgets
5. Licensing and governmental clearances
6. Finance
7. Systems and procedure
8. Identification of project manager
9. Project Management
10. Design basis, general conditions for purchase and contracts
11. Site preparation and investigations
12. Rresources and materials
13. Work packaging
The phase is often taken as a part of the implementation phase since it does not limit itself to
paper work and thinking but many activities, including field work, are undertaken during this
phase.
Types of Plans
1. Quality plan
- Some things when are done increase quality.
2. Validation plan
- Describes the approach resources and schedule used for system validation.
3. Configuration management plan
- Describes the configuration management procedures and structures to be used.
4. Maintenance plan
- Predicts the maintenance requirements of the system, maintenance cost and effort
required.
5. Staff development plan
- Describes how the skills and experience of the project team members will be developed.
6. Work breakdown
- Breakdown of the project into tasks, identification of milestones and deliverables.
7. Project schedule
- Describes the dependencies between task, the estimated time required to reach each
milestone and the allocation of people to activities.
8. Monitoring and reporting techniques
- Describes the management reports which should be produced i.e. looking at the plans,
looking at the actual, short comings.

Some form of network analysis is usually the preferred method of preparing a plan but some
charting methods provide better visual aids and can be more effective for communication plans
to project personnel.
PROJECT SCHEDULING
Project planning determines a project schedule based upon
 Project constraints (delivery, staff, budget).
 Project parameters (structure, size, functions).
 Project milestones and deliverable.
Planning and scheduling must estimate risk associated with each decision.
Project scheduling involves separating work into tasks and predicting task completion.
 There are parallel tasks.
 Coordinate parallel tasks to optimize work force.
 Allow for problems.
 Schedule must be periodically revised with progress.
Managers are responsible for planning, scheduling and controlling projects.
 Projects consist of numerous separate jobs or tasks performed by a variety of departments
and individuals.
 Projects are usually large and complex that the manager cannot remember all the
information pertaining to the plan, schedule, and progress of the project.
 Some activities are interdependent.
Scheduling Tools
Two graphical tools are useful in time charting; The Gantt chart and the PERT chart.
• Objectives of Project Scheduling
– Completing the project as early as possible by determining the earliest start and
finish of each activity.
– Calculating the likelihood a project will be completed within a certain time
period.
– Finding the minimum cost schedule needed to complete the project by a certain
date.
Activities:
i) Task Designation
ii) Identify all the project’s activities and determine the precedence relations among
activities
iii) The PERT/CPM approach to project scheduling uses network presentation of the
project to
• Reflect activity precedence relations
• Activity completion time

• PERT/CPM is used for scheduling activities such that the project’s completion
time is minimized.
Earliest Start Time / Earliest Finish Time –Forwards Pass
• Make a forward pass through the network as follows:
– Evaluate all the activities which have no immediate predecessors.
• The earliest start for such an activity is zero ES = 0.
• The earliest finish is the activity duration EF = Activity duration.
– Evaluate the ES of all the nodes for which EF of all the immediate predecessor
has been determined.
• ES = Max EF of all its immediate predecessors.
• EF = ES + Activity duration.
– Repeat this process until all nodes have been evaluated
• EF of the finish node is the earliest finish time of the project.
Example of project tasks
Latest start time / Latest finish time – Backward Pass
• Make a backward pass through the network as follows:
– Evaluate all the activities that immediately precede the finish node.
• The latest finish for such an activity is LF = minimal project completion
time.
• The latest start for such an activity is LS = LF - activity duration.
– Evaluate the LF of all the nodes for which LS of all the immediate successors has
been determined.
• LF = Min LS of all its immediate successors.
• LS = LF - Activity duration.
– Repeat this process backward until all nodes have been evaluated.
Slack Times
• Activity start time and completion time may be delayed by planned reasons as well as by
unforeseen reasons.
• Some of these delays may affect the overall completion date.
• To learn about the effects of these delays, we calculate the slack time, and form the
critical path.
Immediate Estimated
Activity Predecessor Completion Time
A None 90
B A 15
C B 5
D G 20
E D 21
F A 25
G C,F 14
H D 28
I A 30
J D,I 45

• Slack time is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying
the project completion date, assuming no other delays are taking place in the
project.
Slack Time = LS - ES = LF – EF
The Critical Path
• The critical path is a set of activities that have no slack, connecting the START node with
the FINISH node.
• The critical activities (activities with 0 slack) form at least one critical path in the
network.
• A critical path is the longest path in the network.
• The sum of the completion times for the activities on the critical path is the minimal
completion time
of the project.
GANTT CHARTS
• Gantt charts are used as a tool to monitor and control the project progress.
• A Gantt Chart is a graphical presentation that displays activities as follows:
– Time is measured on the horizontal axis. A horizontal bar is drawn
proportionately to an activity’ s expected completion time.
– Each activity is listed on the vertical axis.
• In an earliest time Gantt chart each bar begins and ends at the earliest start/finish the
activity can take place.
• Gantt chart can be used as a visual aid for tracking the progress of project activities.
• Appropriate percentage of a bar is shaded to document the completed work.
• The manager can easily see if the project is progressing on schedule (with respect to the
earliest possible completion
times).
Gantt Charts – Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages.
– Easy to construct
– Gives earliest completion date.
– Provides a schedule of earliest possible start and finish times of activities.
• Disadvantages
– Gives only one possible schedule (earliest).
– Does not show whether the project is behind schedule.
– Does not demonstrate the effects of delays in any one activity on the
start of another activity, thus on the project completion time.

3) Execution/Implementation Phase
It is during this period that something starts growing in the field and people for the ‘first time can
see the project. Preparation of specifications for equipment and machinery, ordering of
equipment, lining up contractors, designing, coding, testing, checking, trial run and go live
commissioning take place during this phase. As far as the volume of work is concerned, 80 -
85% of project work is done in this phase only.
This phase itself being more or less the whole project, every attempt is made to fast track, i.e.,
overlap the various sub-phases such as engineering, procurement, construction and
commissioning to the maximum extent. This is besides starting the implementation stage itself in
parallel with the earlier phases of the project life cycle. Hardly any project can afford the luxury
of completing one implementation sub-phase fully before moving on to the next.
The amount of fast tracking will, however, depend on who is doing the project. If design is done
by one agency and construction by another, then the scope for fast-tracking becomes very
limited. If, on the other hand, design, supply and construction is contracted out as a total
package, then the contractor is in a position to use fast-tracking to the maximum extent possible.
It is this and many such requirements of this phase that have given birth to what is considered
modern project management.
4. Monitoring and Control is a continuous phase which we have already covered in Quality
Management and Risk Management
5. Project Clean-up Phase/project close up
This is a transition phase in which the software built with the active involvement of various
agencies is physically handed over for production to a different agency who was not so involved
earlier. For project personnel this phase is basically a clean-up task. Drawing, documents, files,
operation and maintenance manuals are catalogued and handed over to the customer. The
customer has to be satisfied with guarantee-test runs. Any change required at the last minute for
fulfillment of contractual obligations in respect of performance has, therefore, to be completed
during this phase to the satisfaction of the customer. Project accounts are closed, materials
reconciliation carried out, outstanding payments made, and dues collected during this phase.
The most important issue during this phase is planning of the staff and workers involved in
execution of the project. All project personnel cannot be suddenly asked to go.

WHY DO WE NEED PROJECT MANAGEMENT?
• It is necessary to Track or Measure the progress we have achieved towards a Goal we
wish to accomplish
• We use Project Management to Aid us in Maximizing and Optimizing our resources to
accomplish our goals
• Enables us to map out a course of action or work plan
• Helps us to think systematically and thoroughly
• Unique Task
• Specific Objective
• Variety of Resources
• Time bound

It’s a balancing act – you’ve got a lot of things to keep going - and going well – all at once!
PM Triple Constraints
y

The Project Management Triple constraints are the keys to quality and success! These three are
interdependent and create quite a balancing act for Project Managers.
The time constraint is the amount of time available to complete a project. All projects have
deadlines or end dates. This may be the most difficult constraint to manage.
The cost constraint is the budgeted amount available for the project. Remember that cost also
translates to resources – people, equipment, and materials.
The scope constraint is what must be done to produce the project's end result – the system you
need – meeting your requirements!
These three constraints are often competing constraints:
• increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost,
• a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope,
• a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope, or managing the project
over a longer period of time to take advantage of various funding opportunities without a
loss of continuity!
The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the
project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.
1.a) Discuss the attributes of successful project management
1. Sound project management processes
2. Project tied to the organization’s business goals
3. Senior management commitment
4. Good change management: Change management process has to be defined upfront at the
beginning of the project! It should be written and agreed upon. Once you finish your
risk management plan, you need to focus on change management! It will happen! How
are you going to deal with change – it can affect scope, time, and budget. Changes can be
things that you realize must be part of the core requirements or to your core requirements.
Or they may be the start of your enhancement list! They can also be hardware changes.
5. Detailed requirements
6. Realistic schedule: Realistic schedule is not just about clients review time. It’s about
giving yourself enough time to review deliverables. You’re going to have some large,
maybe daunting technical documents to review. Make sure you allow yourself enough
time – not only to comment but also to consolidate the comments from all reviewers, to
resolve any conflicting comments, and then to deliver the comments in a professional
manner to the developer!
7. Good stakeholder relationships

8. Empowered project manager
9. Skilled and appropriate team members with defined roles and responsibilities
10. Availability of funding: Availability of funding is critical – you guys use grants and
entitlement funding – these are not bottomless pits of money. You have to estimate well
and manage your budget carefully!
Industry experts would add a few more to this list that I just want to mention –
• risk management – active risk management – don’t just write your plan and let it collect
dust, risks change and need to be managed
• using a formal development methodology - adds structure and formalizes your process
• using standard tools and infrastructure
• using an iterative process - if this meets your needs. It does help to provide a product
faster and to consistently improve the product as the project advances.
b) Outline therefore the advantages of using Project Management in Software
implementations
• In built Monitoring/ Sequencing
• Easy and Early identification of Bottlenecks
• Activity based costing
• Identification and Addition of missing and new activities
• Preempting unnecessary activity/expenditure
• Timely Completion
• Assigning tasks
• Reporting
2. a) Compare and contrast Software Development Phases and Project Management
processes
 Each software development life cycle (SDLC) divides the work into phases and
milestones
 Waterfall & Spiral
 Code and Fix, Waterfall, Incremental, Iterative
 Agile
 PM processes are applied to plan and manage each phase of the chosen methodology
 The Project Management Processes above are repeated within each Project phase

b) Hence explain the aspects of Portfolio and Program Management to show similarities
and relationship of the two above
Managing Groups of Related Projects
• Portfolio Management: The centralized coordination of programs and projects that
compete for organizational resources.
• Program Management: The centralized coordination of related projects to achieve a
program objective
Relationship Between Portfolios, Programs & Projects
3. Discuss the roles of the following people in Software Project Management. Hence define and
distinguish them.
SOFTWARE ARCHITECT
 Responsible for the overall architecture for the software being delivered -
technologies, processes, development environment, etc
 Typical Deliverables include: Business Models, Application Architecture, Process
Model Definition, Development Environment Definition
 The chief technical person on the project who creates the technical “environment”
for the project guided by the principles of the overall Enterprise Architecture
 Software Architect should be involved or at least consulted during the creation of
Corporate
Strategy
Program
Planning
Project Initiation
& Planning
Execution &
Control
Closure
Typical
Portfolio or Program Management
Process Framework
SW Rqmts.
Specification
Design Development Testing Implementation
&Support
A Typical SDLC
Process
Framework
Business
Requirements
System/Software
Development Planning

the Project Charter and plays a key role in the ongoing System & Software
Development Planning Processes
Business Analysist
BA Competency Areas
3. a) What are the roles of the business/Client in an IT project?
Empowerment:
A project manager has to be empowered! With empowerment comes responsibility. This means-
they are a backbone!
Empower the project manager! Give that person more than just the title – give them authority to
make decisions and trust them to do it correctly!

The Project Manager represents the project in a professional manner and stand ups for the project
when required – fight the battles that come their way! PICK THE BATTLES TO FIGHT VERY
CAREFULLY!
WORDS OF WISDOM to the PM– Think Big, Think Fast, Think Ahead
b) Discuss the management Activities within software projects cutting across all the
software management process
Management activities within software projects cut across the Software Management
processes:
• Proposal writing.
• Project planning and scheduling.
• Project costing.
• Project monitoring and reviews.
• Personnel selection and evaluation.
• Report writing and presentations.
Project Management is the total of executive duties necessary for the processing of a
project.
SHAPE * MERGEFORMAT
monitoring co-workers
leadership
planningand
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controlCycleof
ProjectmanagementinManagement
Project
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evaluating results
establishing report mechanisms
initiating corrections Planning
defining aims
generating strategies
putting together time frame
budgeting
Organization
identifying jobs to do
defining qualifications for jobs
establishing organizational structures
assigning responsibilities
Personal
filling jobs
capacity building
evaluating personal
Leadership
giving instructions
delegating authorities
project
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coordinating activities

Their role can be summed up as the following 4
NB: Measuring…….
• Are we efficient?
• Are we productive?
• Are we doing a good job?
• What is the outcome?
• Is it what we wanted to be?
If you can’t plan it, You can’t do it
If you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it
PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Quality is the totality of characteristic of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or
implied needs
Project Quality Management includes:
• All activities of the overall management function that determine the quality policy, objectives
and responsibilities and implements them by means such as quality planning, control,
assurance and improving within the quality system.
•
Project
Management
Control
evaluating results
establishing report mechanisms
initiating corrections Planning
defining aims
generating strategies
putting together time frame
budgeting
Organization
identifying jobs to do
defining qualifications for jobs
establishing organizational structures
assigning responsibilities
Personal
filling jobs
capacity building
evaluating personal
Leadership
giving instructions
delegating authorities
project
representation
coordinating activities

• Ie
• Quality Planning –Identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and
determining how to satisfy them.
• Quality Assurance- Evaluating overall project performance on a regular basis to provide
confidence that the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards.
• Quality Control- Monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with
relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory
performance.
4. Discuss quality planning under project quality management by describing the inputs,
tools and outputs of quality planning
Quality Planning involves identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and
determining how to satisfy them.
Any required changes in the product to meet identified quality standards may require cost or
schedule adjustments, or the desired product quality may require a detailed risk analysis of an
identified problem.
Inputs for quality Planning
• Project Management Plan
• SOW
• Organizational Process Assets-Organizational standard processes e.g P&Ps standard
product and project life cycles, quality policies
• Enterprise Environmental Factors-Governmental or industry standards e.g Regulations
Tools/Techniques for quality planning

• Cost-Benefit Analysis Quality planning must consider cost-benefit tradeoffs. The primary
benefit of meeting quality requirements is less rework, which means higher productivity,
lower cost and increased stakeholder satisfaction.
• Benchmarking- Involves comparing actual or planned project practices to those of other
projects to generate ideas for improvement and to provide a basis by which to measure
performance.
• Design of Experiments (DOE)- Statistical method that helps identify which factors may
influence specific variables of a product or process under development or in production.
• Cost of Quality- COQ- Quality cost are the total costs incurred by investment in
preventing nonconformance to requirements, appraising the product or service for
conformance to requirements, and failing to meet requirements (rework). Failure costs
are often categorized into internal and external. Failure costs are also called cost of poor
quality.
• Additional Quality Planning Tools- brainstorming, affinity diagrams, force field analysis,
nominal group techniques, matrix diagrams, flowcharts, and prioritization matrices.
Output of Quality Planning
• Quality Management Plan- Describes how the Project team will implement the
performance organization’s quality policy. It provides input to the overall project
management plan and must address quality control, quality assurance and continuous
process improvement for the project.
• Quality Metrics- Defines what something is and how quality control process measures it.
• Quality Checklist- Structured tool, usually component-specific, used to verify that a set of
required steps has been performed.
• Quality Baseline- The quality objectives of the project. It’s the basis for measuring and
reporting quality performance as part of the performance measurement baseline.
• Process Improvement Plan/ Project Management Plan- Requested changes (additions,
modification,deletions) to the PMP and its subsidiary plans are processed by review and
disposition through the Integrated Change Control process.
• Other outputs- Quality roles list, Implementation test chart, Project Monitoring Checklist,
Project Review Checklist, Operational Definition Table.
6. Discuss the quality assurance process by describing the inputs, tools and techniques and
outputs of quality assurance in project management

Quality Assurance ensures that project processes are used effectively to produce quality project
deliverables.
Quality Assurance activities
1. Quality Audits- A structured independent review to determine whether project activities
comply with Organizational and project policies, processes and procedures. Its objective
is to identify inefficient and ineffective policies, processes and procedures in use.
The subsequent effort to correct these deficiencies should result in a reduced cost of
quality and an increase in % of acceptance of the product or service by the customer or
sponsor within the performing organization.
2. Process Analysis- It follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to
identify needed improvements from an organizational and technical standpoint. It also
examines problems experienced, constraints experienced and non-value-added activities
identified during process operation.
Process analysis includes root cause analysis, a specific technique to analyse a
problem/situation, determine the underlying causes that lead to it, and create preventive
actions for similar problems.
SQA encompasses:
(1) a quality management approach
(2) effective software engineering technology
(3) formal technical reviews
(4) a multi-tiered testing strategy
(5) document change control
(6) software development standard and its control procedure
(7) measurement and reporting mechanism
There are four inputs to quality assurance process
1. Project Management Plan-This is the quality management plan that’s of interest.
2. Quality Metrics
3. Quality Control Measurements- These are an output from the perform quality control
process, and consist of important documented measurements of quality levels and
compliance.

4. Work Performance information- Quality assurance is concerned with process
improvement; hence this will assist in identifying areas where process improvements are
needed. The purpose here is to fix poor process areas and its knowledge.
Quality Assurance Outputs
1. Requested Changes
2. Reccommended corrective Actions
3. Organizational Process Assets (Updates)- Updated quality standards provide validation of
the effectiveness and efficiency of the performing organization’s quality standards and
processes to meet requirements. These are used during the Quality control process.
4. Project Management Plan Update.
7. Discuss the quality control process by describing the inputs, tools and techniques and
outputs
The quality control tools and techniques discussed:
1. Cause and Effect Diagrams
2. Control Charts
3. Flow-Charting
4. Histogram
5. Pareto Chart and Pareto Analysis
6. Run Charts
7. Scatter Diagrams
8. Statistical Sampling
9. Inspection
Cause and Effect Diagrams
Cause and Effect diagrams are also known as Ishikawa or Fishbone diagrams.
These diagrams are used to identify the root cause (s) of potential or existing problems.
Control Charts
Control charts are used to illustrate the stability of a process. This quality control tool gauges the

behavior of a process over time and when during the recorded time, if the process shows
unacceptable variance, the process is deemed unstable. Unacceptable variance would be a
process that shows seven consecutive readings above or below the central line. The upper and
lower limits are also set for the process and are usually at 3-sigma.
Flow-Charting
Flow-charting requires you to follow the flow of a process to determine potential or existing
problems in the process. You can use this quality control tool to predict potential flaws in a
process.
Apart from being used as a quality control tool, these diagrams are also used in risk analysis.
Histogram
A histogram is a graphical representation of event frequencies. This quality control chart is also
known as a column graph.
Pareto Chart and Pareto Analysis
The Pareto Chart shows the Probability Density (depicted by the blue line) and the
Distribution Function (depicted by the red line).
The probability density is the probability of the occurrence of a variable
Run Charts
A run chart is a series of recorded data over time that is graphically represented. This trend will
help in understanding whether there is a problem or not.
Scatter Diagrams
A scatter diagram shows the correlation between two variables. Scatter plots can show the
relationship between two parameters.
For example, you can use Scatter Plots to understand whether there is a relationship between
team attrition and working late hours.
Statistical Sampling
Statistical Sampling involves measuring a portion (sample) of the entire population instead of
measuring the entire population. This can save quite a bit of time. For example, if you have to
inspect 10000 units a day, then it would take forever to complete the activity. By sampling, it
takes much less time.
Inspection
Inspection is a quality control process technique that involves reviewing products that takes
place during and after the operation processes to see if it meets the defined quality norms.
Conducting reviews is an example of inspection.
This technique helps fix the sources of defects immediately after being detected.
Basically, this technique is useful for a factory that intends to improve productivity, reduce
defects and reduce re-works and wastes.

Points to note during the production process when inspection is performed
a) When raw materials are introduced/ received before production.
b) While products are going through the production process.
c) When products are finished, inspection/ testing takes place before goods or products
are dispatched to customers.
Impacts/ significance of inspection
a) Reduces end-line defects.
b) Ensures quality of the products of a production line.
c) Saves time and efforts of final inspection.
d) Fix or reduce problems at the outset and prevents common mistakes being made
repeatedly.
Quality Control
What is quality control -- the series of inspections, reviews, and test used throughout the
develop cycle of a software product
Quality control includes a feedback loop to the process.
Objective ---> minimize the produced defects, increase the product quality
Two types of quality control:
- Quality design -> the characteristics that designers specify for an item. Includes: requirements,
specifications, and the design of the system.
- Quality of conformance -> the degree to which the design specification are followed. It focuses
on implementation based on the design.
Implementation approaches:
- Fully automated
- Entirely manual
- Combination of automated tools and human interactions
Key concept of quality control:
--> compare the work products with the specified and measurable standards
Quality assurance consists of:
- the auditing and reporting function of management
Goal --> provide management with the necessary data about product quality.
--> gain the insight and confidence of product quality
Cost of Quality
Cost of quality --> includes all costs incurred in the pursuit of quality or perform quality related
work
Quality cost includes:
- prevention cost:
- quality planning
- formal technical reviews
- testing equipment

- training
- appraisal cost:
- in-process and inter-process inspection
- equipment calibration and maintenance
- testing
- failure cost:
internal failure cost: rework, repair, and failure mode analysis
external failure cost: complaint resolution, product return and replacement, help line
support, warranty work
RISK MANAGEMENT
• Project risks are defined as the undesirable event, the chance this event might occur and
the consequences of all possible outcomes. It is the art and science of identifying,
analyzing, and responding to risk throughout the life of a project and in the best interests
of meeting project objectives
• Risk management attempts to identify such events, minimize their impact & provide a
response if the event is detected
• Risk management is often overlooked in projects, but it can help improve project success
by helping select good projects, determining project scope, and developing realistic
estimates
Negative Risk
 A dictionary definition of risk is “the possibility of loss or injury”
 Negative risk involves understanding potential problems that might occur in the project
and how they might impede project success

 Negative risk management is like a form of insurance; it is an investment
Risk can be positive
 Positive risks are risks that result in good things happening; sometimes called
opportunities
 A general definition of project risk is an uncertainty that can have a negative or positive
effect on meeting project objectives
 The goal of project risk management is to minimize potential negative risks while
maximizing potential positive risks
Best Practice
 Some organizations make the mistake of only addressing tactical and negative risks when
performing project risk management
 David Hillson (www.risk-doctor.com) suggests overcoming this problem by widening the
scope of risk management to encompass both strategic risks and upside opportunities,
which he refers to as integrated risk management
Risk Utility
 Risk utility or risk tolerance is the amount of satisfaction or pleasure received from a
potential payoff
◦ Utility rises at a decreasing rate for people who are risk-averse
◦ Those who are risk-seeking have a higher tolerance for risk, and their satisfaction
increases when more payoff is at stake
◦ The risk-neutral approach achieves a balance between risk and payoff
Risk Utility Function and risk Preference
Project Risk Analysis processes
• Risk and the associated cost to address the risk, varies over the project life cycle
– For initial phase there is high chance of risk events, but low cost impact
– For final phase there is low chance of risk events, but cost impact is high

• Identifying and managing risks will greatly affect project success
8. Discuss the risk management planning by discussing the four major steps to developing a risk
management plan
Risk Management Steps
• There are four major steps to developing a risk management plan
1. Identify all the possible risk events that could affect the project
2. Assess each risk in terms of probability, impact severity and controllability
3. Develop a strategy and/or contingency for responding to each risk
4. Monitor and control risks dynamically
• A Risk Management Plan should be developed during the initial project phase and
immediately implemented
• The plan should be reviewed & revised as needed during each project phase
Identify the project risks
• Generate list of all possible risks by “brainstorming” among team members
• Do not attempt to assess risk probability; that is for a later step
• Focus on risk events, rather than risk consequences
– For example, “instrument does not return correct data” is a consequence of events
like poor circuit design, incorrect or failed components, poor software
implementation
• First focus on overall project risks, then identify specific risks
• Use your WBS(Work Breakdown Structure) to help organize your risk identification
process
• Seek input from sources from outside your group
• Emphasize critical thinking and remember Murphy’s Laws
Assessing the risk impact
• Not all risks need to be subject to monitoring and control
• Use a Scenario Analysis to assess the risk event impact
– Determine all consequences and their severity if the event happens
– Identify when, during the project, will the event likely happen
– Estimate the probability that the risk event will occur
– Determine how difficult it will be to detect the event occurrence

Ranking the risk importance
• Rank risks from those that can be neglected to those that require elevated vigilance
• A Risk Severity Matrix can be helpful in prioritizing risks
– Plot of event probability versus impact
• Red zone identifies the most important events
• Yellow zone lists risks that are moderately important
• Green zone events probably can be safely ignored
• Note that the zones are not symmetrical across the matrix
– High impact low probability events much more important than likely low impact
events
Risk response strategies
• Mitigating risk
– Actions are taken during the project to either A) reduce the likelihood of a risk, or
B) reduce the impact of the risk
– For example, testing electrical components after receipt would reduce the
likelihood that “bad” parts would be used in a circuit
• Retaining risk
– Usually for events with low probability but high impact when no alternate
strategy is feasible
– Have a contingency plan ready in case event occurs
• Sharing risk
– Multiple units associated with the project assume some portion of the risk
• Transferring risk
– Risk is assumed and managed by a unit outside the immediate project

– For example, risks associated with the balloon vehicle are transferred to the LA
ACES Project management
Develop a response for risks
• A risk response plan identifies the primary components necessary for managing the risk
– What response strategy will be used
– How will the risk event be detected and the response triggered
– What plan will be put in place in response to the event
– Who will be responsible for monitoring and controlling the risk
Contingency Planning
• Risks associated with the technical aspects of a project can have the most sever outcomes
– Can be mitigated by building and testing prototypes of critical components
– Have available backup or alternate designs that have much lower risk
• Risks associated with the schedule usually require a trade-off
– Manage “slack” time to provide resources for delayed components
– Bring in more people (increase costs) or reduce performance
• Risks associated with costs usually result from estimate errors and omissions
– Time & cost are related; trade-off schedule delays with lower cost
– “Descope” options that remove components of the project, but still allow the
primary mission to proceed
• All “budgets” (mass, power, schedule, cost) should include a reserve percentage that can
be expended as risk events occur
Risk response process control
• The Risk Management Plan should specify the risks, risk responses, and mechanisms
used to control the process
• Need to continuously monitor for risk triggers
– Potential risk events should be identified early in a project and monitoring for
such events immediately commence
• Each risk is assigned to a specific person
– Has the expertise & authority to identify & response to an event
• Need environment where problems are readily reported, embraced & solved
• Changes in any aspect of the project need to be documented and communicated
– Who will have the authority to approve a change
– Use written form to track hardware, software & document changes
– Who is notified of what changes when

CHANGE MANAGEMENT
9. Discuss project change management.
a) What is it and why is it necessary?
 This is the process, tools and techniques to manage the people-side of change to achieve
the required business outcome(s)
 Project change management encompasses all of the processes necessary to determine
where you are at compared to where you planned to be and the activities required to get
back on track if those are not aligned
Successful change management is more likely to occur if the following are included
1. Benefits management and realization to define measurable stakeholder aims, create a
business case for their achievement (which should be continuously updated), and monitor
assumptions, risks, dependencies, costs, return on investment, dis-benefits and cultural issues
affecting the progress of the associated work
2. Effective communications that informs various stakeholders of the reasons for the change
(why?), the benefits of successful implementation (what is in it for us, and you) as well as the
details of the change (when? where? who is involved? how much will it cost? etc.)
3. Devise an effective education, training and/or skills upgrading scheme for the organization
4. Counter resistance from the employees of companies and align them to overall strategic
direction of the organization
5. Provide personal counselling (if required) to alleviate any change-related fears
6. Monitoring of the implementation and fine-tuning as required
B. WHY IS IT NECESSARY
We apply change management for the following primary reasons:
a. To ensure that the desired results from the change are achieved. We measure the success of
change management by measuring the degree to which the objectives of the change (or project)
are realized.
b. Change Management is an enabling framework for managing the people side of change.

c. We apply change management to realize the benefits and desired outcomes of change.
Additional benefits from applying change management include:
a. Faster speed of adoption.
b. Higher ultimate utilization
c. Greater proficiency.
d. Higher engagement of the change.
e. Legacy of successful change.
f. Resistance and risk mitigation (lower productivity, employee turnover, negative
customer impact)
b) Discuss the two perspectives of effective change management
• Organizational change management
• Individual change management
Change management is the effective management of a business change such that executive
leaders, managers and front line employees work in concert to successfully implement the
needed process, technology or organizational changes.
The goal of change management is to implement these business changes quickly to:
• minimize the impact on productivity
• avoid unnecessary turnover or loss of valued employees
• eliminate any adverse impact on your customers
• achieve the desired business outcomes as soon as possible
The knowledge and skills for managing change that you will require come from the two
perspectives on change: the managers and the employees.
Organizational change management
It is the management of change from the perspective of a manager or project team. It is the
perspective of “business leadership” from the “top” looking down into the organization. The
focus is around broad change management practices and skills that will help the organization
understand, accept and support the needed business change. The primary focus is around change
management strategies, communication plans and training programs. The involved parties
include project team members, human resources and key business leaders that sponsor the
change.
Organizational change management provides the knowledge and skills to implement a
methodology and tools for managing change throughout an organization.
– Organizations go through four stages on the way to achieving their strategic
objective:
 Denial
 Resistance

 Exploration
 Renewal
 As the Organization works its way through these stages, there can be a negative
impact on Productivity. This is referred to as the Productivity Dip and is
portrayed below.
Individual change management
It is the management of change from the perspective of the employees. They are the ones who
ultimately must implement the change. The focus here is around the tools and techniques to help
an employee transition through the change process. The primary concerns are the coaching
required helping individuals understand their role and the decisions they make in the change
process. In this arena, you will need to provide tools that employees can use to navigate their
way through the change.
There are many enablers to individual change as seen below:
c) Outline the five building blocks of successful individual change
Change of employees or individuals can be best explained using Prosci’s ADKAR
model.Prosci's ADKAR Model is an individual change management model. It outlines the five
building blocks of successful change, whether that change occurs at home, in the community or
at work.
"ADKAR" is an acronym based on the five building blocks:
a) A Awareness of the need for change
b) D Desire to participate and support the change
c) K Knowledge on how to change
d) A Ability to implement required skills and behaviors
e) R Reinforcement to sustain the change
1. AWARENESS
An individual must first understand why a change is necessary, followed by a personal decision

to support and participate in the change. Yet achieving these seemingly simple building blocks is
not as easy as it sounds.
"Awareness of the need for change"- and not simply "Awareness that a change is happening" For
example, a change manager will need to understand the activities that drive Awareness, and at
the same time, take into account those "resisting factors" or restraining forces that prevent the
awareness message from taking hold with your audiences. In some cases the resisting factors are
so strong, that even the best communications plan will be insufficient. Effective change
management plans are designed to surface and deal with these resisting factors.
What builds Awareness of the need for change?
a) Communications from others
b) Access to information
c) An event
d) An observable condition
Examples:
a. Sponsor messages
b. Managers’ conversations
c. General employee communications
d. Readily-available business information
e. Catastrophic disaster
f. Gradually weakening financial performance
Potential Resisting Factors:
a. Comfort with the status quo.
b. Credibility of the source or sender of the message.
c. Denial that the reasons for change are real
d. Debate over the reasons for change
e. Rumors or misinformation
2. DESIRE
Once an individual has an understanding of why a change is needed (Awareness), the next step in
successful change is making a personal decision to support and participate in the change.
Desire is difficult because it is ultimately a personal decision that is not under our direct control.
While there are certainly ways to try and influence a person's decision to get "on board" with a
change, in the end individuals must make this decision themselves.
Desire is only achieved when the individual would say to us, "I will be part of this change".
Factors that builds Desire to support and participate in a change:
a. Likelihood of gain or achievement (incentive)
b. Fear of consequence (risk or penalty)
c. Desire to be part of something (to belong)
d. Willingness to follow a leader you trust

e. Alternative is worse
Tactics for building Desire:
a. Active and visible primary sponsor
b. Strong sponsorship coalition
c. Personal engagement by coaches
d. Proactive management of resistance
e. Employees involved in the change process - help create the solution.
Potential Resisting factors:
a. Comfort or security with how things are now
b. Fear of the unknown
c. Change not aligned with a person's self-interest or values
d. No answer to what’s In It for Me? (WIIFM)
e. Negative history with change on a personal level (low confidence of success)
f. An individual’s personal situation - financial, career, family, health
g. An organization's track record with change
Implications for change management professionals
This are tips and reflections about Awareness and Desire that can help change management
professionals be more effective in implementing change.
• True Awareness can easily be overlooked.
• It is easy to jump straight to Knowledge. those who are new to change management,
will quickly jump to training as a way to encourage individual change
• Lack of awareness has been cited as the number one reason for employee resistance.
• Creating Awareness when "times are good" can be difficult.- building Awareness
when an organization is succeeding is often a more difficult proposition. The old adage of "If it
isn't broken, then why fix it"
Awareness and Desire can ebb and flow. Sometimes, change management professionals will
conclude that once they have created Awareness and Desire, they no longer need to reinforce
these elements.
3. KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge poses the fewest issues. Because organizations have a long and rich history with
delivering training - most even have an entire department dedicated to training along with
specialists that focus on education. However, training is not the only way to develop knowledge.
Types of Knowledge.
1. Knowledge on how to change (what to do during the transition)
2. Knowledge on how to perform effectively in the future state (knowledge on the
ultimate skills and behaviours needed to support the change).
Knowledge is effective when the individual already has Awareness and Desire. Each of us has
been to a training program where we were not sure why we were there in the first place. Hence
Without Awareness and Desire, you cannot effectively create the Knowledge that is necessary for

a change to be successful.
4. ABILITY
This is the stage in the process where the change actually occurs and is defined by the
demonstrated achievement of the change (such that the expected performance results are
achieved).
5. REINFORCEMENT
It is a natural tendency to resort to what we know. In fact, there is research emerging about how
the brain function that suggests it is not just a natural tendency, but in fact physiological
tendency. While making a change is difficult, sustaining a change can be even more difficult.
This is why Reinforcement is such a critical component of successful change - it encompasses
the mechanisms and approaches so that the new way stays in place.
Implications for change management professionals
• Change does not begin with Knowledge.
Without a holistic model for individual change, teams can easily fall into the trap of simply
sending employees to training when a change is being introduced.
This rarely drives successful change and can often have negative and lasting impacts on the
employees that must bring a change to life in their day-to-day work.
Training is critical, but it must occur in the context of sufficient Awareness and Desire.
• Do not assume that with Knowledge comes Ability.
Ensure that along with training to impart Knowledge, employees are given sufficient tools for
building their own Ability including hands-on practice, support from coaches and the availability
to network and work with others who have made the change successfully.
• Keep a focus on Reinforcement, even when it is difficult.
You only know if a change was successful if you take a step back afterward and see if
employees are actually doing their jobs differently.

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